Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood 
A  Polling  Place 


OUR   AMERICA 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 
By  JOHN  A.  LAPP 

Director  Indiana  Bureau  of  Legislative  Information,  Lecturer  in 
Political  and  Social  Science,  Indiana  University 


APPENDIX  PREPARED  BV 

CHARLES  KETTLEBOROUGH,  PH.  D. 

Statistician  Indiana  Bureau  of  Legislative 
Information 


Illustrated 


INDIANAPOLIS 

THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 

1920 


COPYRIGHT  1916 
THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 


INTRODUCTION 

There  is  no  subject  of  so  great  importance  to  American 
citizenship  as  the  study  of  the  way  we  govern  our  affairs. 
In  a  country  where  every  citizen  takes  a  part  in  control- 
ling public  affairs  it  must  be  apparent  that  every  citizen 
should  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  problems  that  confront 
him  in  city,  state  and  nation.  How  can  a  citizen  act  in- 
telligently on  the  public  problems  of  the  day,  such  as 
roads,  health,  education,  conservation  and  control  of 
business,  unless  he  knows  at  least  the  elementary  facts 
about  them  ? 

Not  only  should  the  citizens  be  informed  on  the  prob- 
lems which  confront  them,  but  they  need  also  to  be  famil- 
iar with  the  plan  and  methods  by  which  we  govern  our- 
selves. The  citizen  needs  to  know  the  actual  government 
of  his  country  in  sufficient  detail  to  enable  him  to  vote 
with  the  best  effect.  We  need  to  know  what  the  officers 
whom  we  elect  are  called  upon  to  do  if  we  are  to  choose 
men  fitted  for  the  offices.  Above  all  we  need  to  realize 
that  the  government  in  all  its  forms  is  our  government, 
subject  to  our  control  and  to  any  changes  which  we 
choose  to  make  in  it.  It  is  a  most  unfortunate  fact-  that 
so  many  people  look  on  government  as  being  something 
imposed  from  without  instead  of  being  created  and  run 
by  the  people  for  their  own  benefit.  Many  people  declare 
themselves  to  be  "against  the  government"  as  though  it 


424822 


INTRODUCTION 

were  a  virtue  to  oppose  their  own  instrument  maintained 
for  themselves  by  themselves. 

We  have  a  somewhat  complicated  system  of  govern- 
ment exercised  through  the  nation,  states,  counties,  town- 
ships, cities,  towns  and  villages.  Each  has  its  part  to 
perform  and  all  together  these  various  governments  do 
the  work  which  provides  for  our  common  needs  and  pro- 
tection. The  citizen  acts  as  a  member  of  each — the  vil- 
lage, town,  city,  township,  county,  state  and  nation — in 
selecting  officials  and  often  in  deciding  public  questions. 
How  can  he  act  intelligently  in  each  unless  he  knows  in 
a  general  way  what  the  powers  and  functions  of  each  of 
these  units  of  government  are? 

That  we  have  not  had  such  knowledge  accounts  for 
much  of  the  failure  of  the  citizens  to  realize  the  full  bene- 
fit that  should  come  to  them  from  this  government  which 
they  have  jointly  created  and  which  they  now  maintain 
for  the  common  benefit  of  all.  How  often  has  it  hap- 
pened that  candidates  for  city  office  have  based  their 
campaign  on  matters  over  which  as  city  officials  they 
would  have  no  control?  How  often  have  state  officials 
been  chosen  not  with  regard  to  the  work  which  con- 
fronted the  state  but  with  reference  to  problems  which 
are  national?  How  often  have  we  seen  local  officials 
chosen  with  reference  to  their  membership  in  a  national 
party  instead  of  their  fitness  to  do  the  particular  work 
which  it  will  be  their  function  to  do  if  they  are  elected? 
Until  the  citizens  understand  the  essential  facts  of  gov- 
ernment they  will  be  subject  to  just  such  political  bun- 
combe as  is  common  in  political  campaigns.  It  ought  to 


INTRODUCTION 

be  elemental  that  every  official  should  be  chosen  with  ref- 
erence to  the  work  he  is  to  do.  When  the  people  under- 
stand better  what  the  work  of  each  official  is,  they  will 
choose  more  intelligently,  and  better  government  will 
result. 

This  book  is  written  to  set  forth  the  elementary  facts 
of  government  in  this  country.  It  begins  by  a  statement 
of  the  way  people  live  in  modern  society;  it  discusses  the 
needs  and  wants  of  people  for  food,  clothing,  shelter, 
property,  education,  enjoyment  and  liberty;  it  shows  the 
necessity  for  common  protection  against  harm;  it  shows 
how  out  of  these  needs  and  wants  comes  the  necessity  for 
government. 

The  benefit  to  be  derived  from  such  a  statement  is  prin- 
cipally that  we  come  to  understand  clearly  that  govern- 
ment is  not  something  imposed  on  us  but  is  rather  our 
own  instrument  to  provide  common  needs  and  protection 
subject  always  to  our  management  and  control. 

Having  established  the  basis  of  government  the  book 
takes  up  concrete  problems  and  shows  how  common  needs 
for  roads  and  streets,  education,  health  protection,  con- 
servation and  business  control  are  met  by  the  govern- 
ments of  nation,  state  and  locality.  When  we  discuss 
roads,  health  protection  or  other  problems,  the  part  which 
each  government  plays  in  the  matter  is  made  clear.  The 
citizen  is  able  then  to  go  to  the  proper  place  to  get  things 
done  or  to  lay  the  blame  when  things  are  not  done  right. 
To  be  able  to  fix  responsibility  should  be  one  of  the  fruits 
of  the  study  of  government  in  this  way. 

When  the  processes  of  government  are  discussed  the 


INTRODUCTION 

same  method  is  followed.  .  Law  making  is  treated  as  a 
unit.  We  need  laws  and  we  make  them  through  Con- 
gress, legislatures  and  city  councils  or  commissions.  En- 
forcing laws  through  executive  officials  and  interpreting 
them  through  courts  are  treated  in  the  same  way.  Again 
it  is  possible  for  the  citizen  to  go  to  the  right  place  to  get 
work  done  if  he  understands  generally  what  parts  of  law 
making,  law  enforcing  and  law  interpreting  are  per- 
formed by  the  public  officials  of  cities,  states  and  nation. 

A  conscious  attempt  has  been  made  to  clarify  the 
processes  of  government  so  as  to  avoid  the  confusion 
which  comes  when  nation,  state  and  local  governments 
are  analyzed  and  studied  separately.  The  people  are  more 
interested  in  what  governments  do  than  in  the  forms  of 
the  various  governments  and  yet  some  study  of  form  is 
essential  to  every  citizen. 

Government  is  not  a  matter  to  be  left  to  the  study  of 
the  few.  It  is  essentially  a  universal  study,  for  upon  the 
civic  activity  of  every  citizen  may  turn  the  national  fate. 
Public  education  must  take  this  into  account  and  so 
organize  its  work  that  every  youth  will  know  his  civic 
duties,  and  knowing  them,  will  have  the  power  to  per- 
form them. 

The  study  of  this  subject  is  not,  however,  a  matter  for 
the  schools  alone.  It  must  be  universal  and  continuous. 
There  is  no  place  to  stop.  The  world  moves.  New  prob- 
lems arise  and  the  citizenship  must  keep  itself  progres- 
sively informed  of  the  progress  of  the  race  in  its  efforts 
to  realize  the  fullest  justice  and^fair  dealing. 

J.A.L. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    A  VIEW  OF  THE  WORK  AND  NEEDS  OF  PEOPLE    ...        1 

Occupations — Food — Clothing — 'Shelter — Luxuries 
.   — Wide    Variety    of    Wants — Property — Liberty — 
Education — Enjoyment   and    Leisure — Mutual    De- 
pendence— Working  Together. 

II    SUPPLYING  COMMON  NEEDS 13 

General— Highways— Streets — Bridges— Railroads, 
Canals  and  Steamships — Cost  of  Transportation — 
The  People's  Interest— The  Post-Office—Telegraph 
and  Telephone — Money — Drainage  and  Irrigation 
—City  Needs— Disposal  of  Waste— Street  Railways 
— Education — Libraries — Other  Means  of  Educa- 
tion— Recreation — Charities. 

III  PROVIDING  FOR  COMMON  PROTECTION 24 

Protection  of  Life — Protection  Against  Foreign 
Countries  —  Army  and  Navy  —  Police  —  Common 
Dangers  —  Preventing  Disease  —  Sanitation  and 
Health — Health  in  City  and  Country — Accidents  on 
Highways — Accidents  on  the  Streets — Street  Light- 
ing—  Fire  Protection  —  Accidents  in  Factories  — 
Safety  Devices  on  Trains  —  Protection  Against 
Fraud — Honest  Weights  and  Measures — Banking — 
Insurance — Blue  Sky  Companies — Conclusion. 

IV  THE  NATURE  OF  GOVERNMENT 38 

The  Basis  of  Government — The  Three  Acts  of  Gov- 
ernment —  Representation  —  The  Legislative  Act — 
The  Executive  Act — The  Judicial  Act — Constitution 
Making — Checking  the  Government — Religious  and 
Civil  Liberty — False  Imprisonment — Free  Speech — 
Freedom  of  Assemblage — Equal  Rights — Where  to 
Find  Our  Safeguards. 

V    THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES 49 

Facts  About  the  People  of  the  United  States— Rural 
and  City  Population — Occupations — Foreign  Immi- 
grants—Illiterates— The  Importance  of  These  Facts 
— Need  of  Different  Forms  of  Government — Di- 
vision of  Work  Between  States  and  Nation — Pow- 


CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

ers  of  the  Nation — Powers  of  the  States — Division 
of  Work  Between  States  and  Local  Communities 
— A  Complex  System — A  Double-Headed  Country 
— Importance  of  Knowing  the  Form  of  Govern- 
ment— Value  of  Local  Government — Examples  of  a 
Proper  Division  of  Work  Among  Locality,  State 
and  Nation — Constitutions. 

VI    ROADS  AND  STREETS 64 

Modern  Acts  Are  for  Commerce — Development  of 
Roads — Kinds  of  Roads — Paths  and  Trails — Dirt 
Roads — Sand  Clay  Roads — Gravel  Roads — Mac- 
adam Roads — Brick  and  Concrete  Roads — Street 
Pavements  —  Success  Dependent  upon  Intelligent 
Construction  —  Repair  and  Maintenance  —  Control 
and  Management  of  Roads  —  Local  f  Control  and 
Management — State  Aid  and  Supervision — Plan  for 
Control  of  Roads— National  Aid — The  Future  Im- 
portance of  Roads. 

VII    HEALTH  PROTECTION 78 

Health  Protection  Most  Important — Prevention  of 
Filth — Power  of  Health  Boards  to  Remove  Nui- 
sances— Prevention  Better  Than  Cure — Necessity 
of  Sewage  Disposal — Water,  Milk  and  Food  Sup- 
ply— Quarantine — Vaccination — Medical  Inspection 
of  Schools  —  Sanitary  Measures  —  Destroying  the 
Fly  and  Mosquito-— Diseases  Caused  by  Unhealthy 
Occupations — Hospitals  and  Asylums — The  Result 
of  Health  Work— The  Part  of  Nation,  State  and 
Locality  in  Health  Protection. 

VIII    EDUCATION 91 

Education  Always  Supported  in  This  Country — 
Present  Extent  of  Education — Purposes  of  Educa- 
tion— Education  Must  Be  Universal — Elementary 
Education — Higher  Education — Vocational  Educa- 
tion—  Part-Time  Schools  —  Extension  and  Corre- 
spondence— Public  Library — Complete  System  Pro- 
vided— The  Management  and  Control  of  Education 
— State  Board  of  Education — City  Schools — County 
Superintendent — Local  School  Officers — Support  of 
Education — The  Service  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment to  Education — Service  of  State  and  National 
Departments — Road  Investigations — Health  Service 
— Children's  Care — Agricultural  Investigation — La- 
bor Investigation  —  Commercial  Investigation  — 
Tests  and  Experiments. 


CONTENTS— Continued 
CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX    SOME  CITY  PROBLEMS 107 

Growth  of  Cities — Problems  of  City  Growth — 
Planning  Cities — Railroads  and  Terminals — Pro- 
viding for  Street  Traffic — Making  Cities  Beautiful 
— Bill-Boards  and  Height  of  Buildings — Municipal 
Art — Housing — Playgrounds — Residence  Districts 
— Markets — Garbage  Removal — Sewage  Disposal 

X    SOME  RURAL  PROBLEMS  ...........    123 

Reasons  for  Trend  Away  from  Country — Dangers 
in  Growth  of  Cities  at  Expense  of  the  Country — 
Better  Agriculture  Needed — Training  for  Better 
Agriculture — Frauds  Against  Farmers:  Fertilizers 
— Feeding  Stuffs — Seeds — Weed  Cutting — Neces- 
sity for  All  to  Act — Insect  Pests  and  Animal  Dis- 
eases— Marketing  Crops — Cooperation — Transpor- 
tation— Rural  Credits. 

XI    LENDING  A  HELPING  HAND 134- 

The  People  Take  Care  of  the  Unfortunate — Means 
of  Caring  for  the  Unfortunate — Care  and  Protec- 
tion of  Children — Homes  and  Hospitals  for  the 
Afflicted — Care  of  the  Sick  and  Injured — Tempo- 
rary Care  and  Help — Pensions — Social  Insurance. 

XII    CONSERVATION 145 

The  Governors'  Conference  in  1908 — Two  Ways  to 
Save  —  Minerals  —  Forests  —  Waters  —  Land  — 
Fish  and  Game — Plant  Diseases — Smoke. 

XIII  CONTROLLING  BUSINESS .>....    156 

Equality  of  Rights — Monopoly — Control  of  Mon- 
opoly— Natural  Monopoly — Regulation  of  Natural 
Monopoly — Railroad  and  Public  Utility  Commis- 
sions— Labor  and  Capital — Collective  Bargaining — 
Strikes — Profit  Sharing — Arbitration  and  Concilia- 
tion— Regulation  of  Labor  Conditions — Minimum 
Wages. 

XIV  KEEPING  THE  RECORDS     .........    ...    .    .    167 

Importance  of  Official  Records — United  States 
Records — State  Records — Local  Records — Records 
of  Private  Matters — Deeds  and  Mortgage  Records 
— Needed  Changes  in  Recording  Deeds  and  Mort- 
gages— The  Tor r ens  System — Records  of  Incorpo- 
ration— Records  Prevent  Fraud — Records  of  Facts 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


XV 


CONTENTS— Continued 

About  the  People — Birth,  Death  and  Marriage  Rec- 
ords— Records  of  Defectives — Fire  Loss — Agricul- 
tural Facts — Manufactures — Facts  About  Railroads, 
Public  Utilities,  Banking  Insurance — Facts  About 
Education — United  States  Census — Apportionment 
of  Representatives— Census  Shows  Conditions. 

SELECTING  PUBLIC  OFFICERS 178 

The  Right  of  Suffrage — Political  Parties— Nomi- 
nating a  Governor — Convention  System  and  Direct 
Primary — The  Convention — The  Direct  Primary — 
Nomination  of  Candidates  for  President— The 
Principal  Contests — Methods  of  Selecting  Dele- 
gates— The  Platform — The  Campaign  for  Election 
—Party  Committee— People  Should  Vote  Without 
Urging  —  Corrupt  Practises  —  Honest  Elections 
Needed— Election  Officials— How  the  Result  Is 
Determined — Nomination  and  Election  of  Local 
Officers — Nominations  and  Elections  by  Less  Than 
a  Majority — Remedies  for  Minority  Elections. 

XVI    CIVIL  SERVICE 192 

Extent  of  Government  Employment — The  Spoils 
Method — Civil  Service  Reform — Examinations — 
Department  Clerks — Policemen — Firemen — Highly 
Skilled  and  Professional  Positions — The  Eligible 
List — The  Advantages  of  the  Merit  System — Pen- 
sions for  Government  Employees. 

XVII    DISCHARGING  OFFICERS  AND  EMPLOYEES 202 

The  Task  of  Managing  Government  Employees — 
People  Control  Through  Elected  Officials — Incen- 
tives in  Public  Work — Failure  to  Reelect — Im- 
peachment— The  Recall — Removal  by  the  Governor 
—Removal  of  Subordinates. 

XVIII    LAW-MAKING  BODIES 210 

The  Process  of  Making  Laws — Congress — Appor- 
tionment of  Representatives — Sessions  of  Congress 
— Powers  of  Congress — The  State  Legislatures — 
Powers  of  State  Legislatures — Apportionment  of 
Members  of  State  Legislatures — Gerrymandering 
—City  Councils  or  Commissions — Powers  of  the 
City  Council  or  Commission — Apportionment  of 
Members  of  City  Council  or  Commission — Counties 
and  Townships. 


CONTENTS— Continued 
CHAPTER  PACK 

XIX    How  LAWS  ABE  MADE 221 

Custom  and  Law— Progress  Makes  New  Laws 
Necessary — City  Councils  and  Commissions — State 
Legislatures— Where  Do  Proposals  for  New  Laws 
Come  From  ? — Legislative  Information — Commit- 
tees—Form and  Preparation  of  Bills— Introduction 
of  the  Bill— Action  by  the  Committee — Procedure 
in  the  Houses— The  Governor's  Action— The  En- 
rolled Law— Lobbyists— Manipulation  of  Legisla- 
tive Machinery— Legislation  in  Congress— Proce- 
dure in  Congress— Lobbyists  in  Congress— Commit- 
tees of  Congress— Faults  of  Legislative  Bodies  May 
Be  Corrected  by  Intelligent  Criticism—The  Initia- 
tive— The  Referendum. 

XX  PUTTING  LAWS  INTO  EFFECT— THE  EXECUTIVE  .  .  239 
Law  Enforcement— The  Executive  Department  of 
the  United  States — The  Executive  Department  of 
the  States— The  Executive  Department  of  Cities: 
The  Federal  Plan— The  Commission  Form— The 
Business-Manager  Form — Execution  of  Laws  by 
Counties  and  Townships — The  Problem  of  Execu- 
tion of  Laws  Is  One  of  Fixing  Responsibility — The 
Work  of  the  State  and  Nation  Is  Distinct— The 
State  Controls  Cities,  Counties,  Townships,  etc.— 
System  of  State  and  National  Aid. 

XXI    THE  SYSTEM  OF  COURTS 252 

Many  Kinds  of  Courts— The  City  Court— The  Jus- 
tices of  Peace — The  County  or  Circuit  Court — The 
Juvenile  Court — Courts  of  Appeal — United  States 
Courts— The  United  States  District  Court— The 
United  States  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals— The 
United  States  Supreme  Court — Special  United 
States  Courts— Court  of  Claims— Court  of  Customs 
Appeals— The  Jury. 

XXII    How  THE  COURTS  WORK 262 

The  Purpose  of  Courts — Civil  Procedure— Begin- 
ning Suit— The  Trial— Appeal  to  Higher  Court— 
The  Chance  Is  Given  for  a  Fair  Trial— Costs— Not 
All  Cases  Come  to  Trial— Enforcement  of  De- 
cisions—Power of  the  United  States  Courts— Pro- 
cedure of  United  States  Courts — Criminal  Proce- 
dure— Methods  of  Charging  a  Person  with  Crime 
—The  Grand  Jury— Minor  Offenses— Rights  of 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS— Continue!! 

Persons  Accused  of  Crime — The  Trial — Criminal 
Procedure  in  United  States  Court — Declaring  Laws 
Unconstitutional. 


PACK 


XXIII  PUNISHING  DISOBEDIENCE  TO  LAWS   .    .    .    ..    .    ..    277 

Enforcing  Laws — Fines — Loss  of  Privileges — Im- 
prisonment— Capital  Punishment — Lockups — Jails— • 
Reformatories  and  Reform  Schools — Prisons  and 
Penitentiaries  —  Penal  Farms  —  Employment  of 
Prisoners  —  Defective  Prisoners  —  Indeterminate 
Sentence  and  Parole — Suspended  Sentence — Pro- 
bation— Pardon,  Reprieve  and  Commutation — Aid 
to  Prisoners  on  Leaving  Prisons — Local,  State  and 
Federal  Prisons. 

XXIV  MILITARY  POWER   .     .    ;.    >.    ..........    287 

Constitution  Limited  Power  of  Military — Organiza- 
tion of  the  Army — Cooperation  of  States  and  Na- 
tion— Commander-in-Chief — Uses  of  Regular  Army 
— Uses  of  the  National  Guard — Martial  Law. 

XXV    RELATIONS  WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 294 

Travel  —  Trade  —  Ambassadors  ^  and    Ministers  — 
Consuls — Treaties    and   Arbitration — The    Aim   of 
,  This    Country  —  The    Monroe   Doctrine  —  Interna- 

tional Law — Foreign  Affairs  a  National  Matter — 
President  Appoints  Foreign  Representatives  — 
Homes  for  Ambassadors — Immigration — Naturali- 
zation. 

XXVI    TERRITORIES 303 

Alaska— Hawaii— Philippines— Porto  Rico— District 
of  Columbia — Canal  Zone — Minor  Dependencies. 

XXVII    WHERE  THE  MONEY  COMES  FROM 313 

Cost  of  Government — Old  and  New  Methods  of 
Taxation — Sources  of  Government  Revenue — Reve- 
nue of  the  Federal  Government — The  Tariff-— In- 
ternal Revenue  —  Income  Tax  —  Postal  Service  — 
Amount  Collected  by  the  United  States — Indirect 
System — State  Revenues  :  General  Property  Tax— ^ 
Business  Tax— Inheritance  Tax— Poll  Tax— Reve- 
nues of  Counties  and  Townships  —  Revenues  of 
Cities  and  Towns — Special  Assessments  for  Streets, 
Sewers,  etc. — School  Revenue — Bonds — Provisions 
to  Pay  Bonds  —  Planning  Expenditures:  The 


CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Budget— Proposed  Reforms  in  Taxation— The  Sin- 
gle Tax — The  Progressive  Tax — Classification  of 
Property — Assessing  and  Collecting  Taxes. 


APPENDIX 

OUTLINE  OF   THE   POWERS   AND  DUTIES   OF   FEDERAL 
OFFICIALS 331 

The  President— Vice-President— The  Cabinet— Sec- 
retary of  State — Secretary  of  Treasury — Secretary 
of  War — Attorney-General — Postmaster-General — 
The  Secretary  of  the  Navy — Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior— The  Secretary  of  Agriculture — The  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce — Secretary  of  Labor — Interstate 
Commerce  Commission — Federal  Reserve  Board — 
Civil  Service  Commission — Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  STATE  OFFICIALS 

IN  THE  VARIOUS  STATES 343 

Governor  —  Lieutenant-Governor  —  State  Officers, 
Boards  and  Commissions :  Secretary  of  State — At- 
torney-General— Treasurer — Auditor  or  Comptrol- 
ler— Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction — Board 
of  Health — Public  Service  Commission — Fire  Mar- 
shal— Superintendent  of  Insurance — Banking  De- 
partment— Tax  Commissioners — Board  of  Pardons 
— Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections — Highway 
Commissioner — Conservation  Commission — Boards 
of  Irrigation  and  Drainage — Fish  and  Game  Com- 
mission— Workmen's  Compensation  Commissions — 
Labor  Bureaus — State  Board  of  Agriculture — 
Printing  Board — Examining  Boards — State  Board 
of  Accounts — Board  of  Education — Entomologist — 
State  Library  and  Public  Library  Commissions. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  COUNTY  OFFICERS 

IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STATES 353 

The  County— County  Board— Sheriff— Auditor- 
Treasurer — Clerk  of  the  Court — Registrar  of  Deeds 
— Surveyor — Coroner — Superintendent  of  Schools 
— Health  Officer — Superintendent  of  the  Poor — 
Prosecuting  Attorney — Board  of  Equalization  — 
County  Assessor. 


APPENDIX— Continued 

FAGS 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  TOWNSHIP  OF- 
FICERS IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STATES 357 

Towns  or  Townships — Town  Meeting — Selectmen 
and  Trustees — Town  Clerk — Constable — Commis- 
sioner or  Supervisor  of  Highways — Assessor — Jus- 
tice of  the  Peace. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 359 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 364 

ARTICLES  IN  AMENDMENTS  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION    .     .  377 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION   ...  385 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 389 

INDEX  ...  395 


OUR  AMERICA 
THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 


OUR   AMERICA 

THE   ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 

CHAPTER  I 

A  VIEW  OF 
THE  WORK  AND  NEEDS  OF  PEOPLE 

All  able-bodied  men  and  women  are  engaged  in 
work  of  some  sort.  There  are  farmers,  manufac- 
turers, grocers,  lawyers,  doctors,  laborers,  home- 
makers.  There  are  thousands  of  occupations  in 
which  people  engage.  Each  person  does  his  part  and 
the  means  of  living  are  thus  supplied  to  all  people. 
The  division  of  labor,  as  it  is  called,  whereby  each 
does  a  part  of  the  whole,  has  resulted  in  the  produc- 
tion for  common  use  of  many  things  which  formerly 
even  kings  could  not  obtain. 

Occupations. — But  the  first  question  which  one 
asks  is:  Why  work  at  all?  Why  do  men  work  day 
after  day  at  hard  tasks?  The  answer  is  simple.  It 
is  that  men  have  needs  and  wants  which  they  seek 
to  satisfy.  By  their  labor  they  produce  goods  which 
they  may  use  or  exchange  for  other  goods  which 
they  want.  The  farmer  produces  crops  to  furnish 
his  foodstuffs.  What  he  does  not  use  is  exchanged 
for  other  materials.  The  manufacturer  takes  the 

1 


2  OUR  AMERICA 

products  of  mine,  forest  and  farm  and  fashions  arti- 
cles for  use  or  enjoyment.  The  storekeeper  buys 
and  sells  the  goods  of  others  and  serves  as  a  means 
of  exchange  between  producer  and  consumer.  The 
people  engaged  in  transportation  carry  goods  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  to  the  people  who  want  them. 
The  laborer  gives  his  effort  in  all  kinds  of  work 
in  exchange  for  goods  or  for  money  with  which  to 
buy  goods.  The  home-maker  uses  products  in  such 
a  way  as  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  good  from 
them. 

To  satisfy  the  needs  and  wants  of  people  there 
must  be  constant  exchange  of  goods,  since  one  person 
produces  only  a  mere  fraction  of  what  he  uses  and 
must  depend  upon  exchanging  his  labor  or  his  surplus 
products  for  things  which  others  produce. 

Food. — The  first  object  of  work  is  to  obtain  food 
upon  which  to  live.  The  savage  went  out  to  hunt 
or  to  fish  and  lived  on  what  he  killed  or  on  things 
which  grew  wild;  the  early  settlers  cultivated  the 
soil  and  obtained  their  food  from  its  products  and 
from  fishing  and  hunting;  people  living  in  the  remote 
sections  to-day  raise  from  the  soil  the  larger  part 
of  their  food;  millions  of  farmers  supply  themselves 
from  the  farm  with  the  more  important  articles  of 
food ;  and  even  the  city  dwellers  raise  a  portion  of 
their  food  from  the  cultivation  of  small  garden  plats. 

But  if  we  consider  the  articles  of  food  on  our 
breakfast  table  we  shall  readily  see  the  extent  to 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  3 

which  we  exchange  goods  in  order  to  satisfy  our 
every-day  wants.  The  coffee  may  have  been  produced 
in  Java;  grapefruit  and  oranges  in  Florida;  sugar 
in  Cuba;  salt  in  Syracuse;  pepper  in  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific;  meat,  even  for  the  farmer's  table,  may 
have  been  obtained  in  Chicago  from  cattle  born  in 
Missouri,  raised  in  Iowa,  and  fattened  in  Indiana; 
while  bread  may  have  been  produced  from  flour  man- 
ufactured in  Minneapolis  from  wheat  raised  in  the  Ca- 
nadian Northwest.  Thousands  of  persons  contribute 
to  the  production,  preparation  and  distribution  of  the 
materials  out  of  which  an  ordinary  breakfast  is  made. 
We  are  dependent,  therefore,  upon  the  smooth 
working  of  the  system  of  exchanging  goods  to  get 
the  things  on  which  to  live,  at  a  price  which  we  are 
able  to  pay.  If  for  any  reason  the  food  supply  were 
cut  off  for  a  week,  severe  distress  would  be  caused. 
The  stoppage  of  business  by  wars,  floods,  or  strikes 
causes  a  quick  rise  in  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 
Of  course  the  effect  is  felt  most  keenly  in  the  larger 
cities  where  practically  no  food  is  produced,  and  that 
effect  is  quickest  in  respect  to  perishable  articles  such 
as  milk,  fruits  and  vegetables.  A  brief  stoppage  of 
the  milk  supply  of  a  large  city  will  bring  suffer- 
ing to  thousands  of  babies  and  perhaps  death  to 
many.  The  people  living  in  the  country  do  not  suffer 
distress  or  want  so  quickly  by  the  disturbance  of  the 
supply  of  food,  because  they  produce  some  of  the 
most  substantial  parts  of  their  food.  They  soon 


4  OUR  AMERICA 

begin,  however,  to  feel  the  pinch  of  high  prices  and 
are  deprived  of  many  of  their  ordinary  articles  of 
food. 

Thus,  unless  the  machinery  of  production,  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  food  works  without  interrup- 
tion, the  results  are  quickly  felt  by  every  person — 
at  once  and  keenly  in  the  cities  and  without  much 
delay  among  the  rural  population.  So  great  is  our 
dependence  upon  one  another. 

Clothing. — Our  next  prime  need  is  for  clothing, 
and  again  we  may  say  that  we  draw  upon  the  whole 
earth  for  materials.  If  it  takes  the  labor  of  a  thou- 
sand persons  to  supply  a  breakfast  it  takes  many 
times  that  number  to  supply  the  materials  for  cloth- 
ing and  to  fashion  materials  into  articles  for  wear. 

Let  us  take  an  inventory  of  the  principal  materials 
used  in  making  our  clothing.  Cotton,  which  forms 
so  large  a  part,  may  have  been  raised  in  the  South; 
spun  and  woven  into  cloth  in  New  England  or  in 
Europe;  made  into  garments  by  the  tailor,  dress- 
maker or  housewife  or  by  hundreds  of  workers  in 
factories  and  shops.  Wool  is  raised  on  the  ranches 
of  the  West;  likewise,  perhaps,  spun  and  woven  in 
distant  places;  and  made  into  articles  for  wear  in 
many  parts  of  the  world. 

The  same  dependence  upon  many  hands  in  many 
countries  is  found  in  the  case  of  material  such  as  silk, 
linen,  leather,  straw  and  plumes.  In  some  cases, 
hundreds  of  persons  are  employed  upon  a  single 
article.  There  are,  for  example,  more  than  two  hun- 


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THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  5 

dred  and  sixty  separate  operations  in  making  a  shoe 
in  a  shoe  factory. 

It  is  true  that  men  might  make  th'eir  own  articles 
of  wear.  Primitive  people  and  our  early  settlers 
used  mostly  home-made  articles.  The  last  genera- 
tion remembers  well  the  spinning-wheel  and  the 
home-knit  garments.  Even  home-made  shoes  and 
hats  were  common.  But  to-day  nearly  every  one  de- 
pends upon  exchanging  the  goods  he  produces  for 
the  necessary  articles  of  dress.  So,  in  the  case  of 
dress  as  in  the  case  of  food,  we  are  dependent  upon 
one  another.  The  consequences  of  failure  to  get  the 
goods  to  the  person  who  uses  them  are,  however,  not 
so  serious  in  the  case  of  dress  as  in  the  case  of  food. 

Shelter. — The  third  great  need  to  supply  is  that  of 
shelter  and  here  again  the  statement  may  be  made 
that  we  depend  upon  many  people  and  many  coun- 
tries to  enable  us  to  live  comfortably.  Building  ma- 
terials are  of  many  varieties  and  their  supply  depends 
upon  the  work  of  thousands  of  men  in  the  forests, 
mills,  mines  and  factories. 

The  pioneer  was  independent  in  this  respect.  He 
built  his  hut  from  the  trees  of  the  forest  and  plastered 
the  holes  with  mud.  Scarcely  anything  had  to  be  ob- 
tained from  exchanging  goods  with  others.  Yet  the 
pioneer  generally  exchanged  labor  in  order  to  have 
aid  in  putting  the  heavy  timbers  together. 

The  pioneer  was  independent  in  the  matter  of  fuel. 
He  cut  his  own  logs  and  lighted  the  fire  by  striking 
the  flint.  We  are  to-day  entirely  dependent  upon 


6  OUR  AMERICA 

others  for  this  necessity  for  man's  comfort.  In 
1902  when  the  coal  strike  was  on  in  the  hard  coal 
fields,  that  kind  of  coal  in  some  places  rose  to  twenty- 
eight  dollars  a  ton.  Over  large  sections  where  the 
people  depended  upon  hard  coal  for  fuel,  there  was 
actual  suffering  and  winter  was  approaching.  Ex- 
treme measures  had  to  be  taken  to  settle  the  strike, 
so  great  was  the  dependence  of  the  people  upon  the 
mines  to  supply  their  needs  for  fuel.  In  the  cities 
the  people  have  to  depend  upon  others  not  only  for 
necessities  but  also  for  such  conveniences  as  gas  for 
heating,  cooking  and  lighting  and  for  electricity  and 
other  forms  of  light. 

Luxuries. — Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  abso- 
lute necessities  of  life,  namely,  food,  clothing  and 
shelter.  The  demands  for  these  necessities  may  not 
be  ignored.  They  can  not  be  reduced  below  a  cer- 
tain point  without  danger  to  our  lives.  There  are, 
however,  certain  other  demands  which  men  strive  to 
meet  which  are  not  absolute  necessities  but  which 
are  great  conveniences.  For  example,  we  may  men- 
tion the  finer  and  more  expensive  articles  of  food, 
clothing  and  shelter  which  are  not  necessary  to  sus- 
tain life  but  which  people,  nevertheless,  will  have. 
For  instance,  sugar  is  not  necessary  to  sustain  life, 
yet  it  is  counted  a  necessity;  silk  is  not  essential  for 
dress  yet  people  who  have  the  means  will  buy  it;  fine 
furniture  may  not  be  necessary  to  the  home  yet  it 
will  be  purchased  by  every  one  who  can  afford  it. 

Wide  Variety  of  Wants. — These  facts  account  for 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  7 

the  wide  range  of  wants  which  keep  millions  of  work- 
ers in  thousands  of  occupations  busy.  No  one  is 
satisfied  with  the  bare  necessaries  of  life  and  each 
having  his  own  particular  wants,  makes  a  wide  range 
of  demand.  The  discoveries  of  science  and  the 
growth  of  invention  are  constantly  adding  new  goods 
which  people  want  as  soon  as  they  know  their  merits. 
This  in  turn  causes  new  occupations  to  arise.  The 
people  of  to-day  earn  their  living  in  hundreds  of  ways 
unknown  to  the  past  generation,  and  the  people  of 
the  next  generation  will  add  many  other  occupations 
now  unknown. 

Property. — As  a  result  of  labor  and  exchange  men 
acquire  the  means  of  living,  shelter  and  enjoyment. 
The  goods  which  they  secure  are  their  own  private 
property.  Many  people  secure  more  goods  than  they 
actually  use  and  the  accumulations  take  many  forms. 
All  that  a  person  acquires  belongs  to  him  in  our  sys- 
tem of  society.  No  man's  property  may  be  taken 
except  on  terms  which  are  just  and  which  protect  the 
owner.  Every  man  is  protected  in  his  property 
rights  and  those  rights  extend  not  only  to  the  goods 
which  he  owns  but  also  to  his  labor.  The  fruits  of  a 
man's  labor  as  well  as  his  property  belong  to  him. 

Liberty. — Freedom  to  do  as  one  pleases  so  long  as 
one  does  not  interfere  with  others  is  a  sacred  right 
earned  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  Liberty  and 
the  right  to  enjoy  one's  self  as  one  pleases  have  de- 
veloped the  desire  for  the  security  of  freedom.  So 
men  strive  hard  to  get  and  to  maintain  freedom. 


8  OUR  AMERICA 

\ 

Education. — Out  of  the  many  problems  of  life 
comes  the  need  for  knowledge.  People  must  know 
how  to  live  under  new  conditions.  They  must  know 
how  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  ways  of  living.  They 
must  be  able  to  protect  their  bodies  from  accident  and 
disease.  They  must  learn  to  do  some  work  whereby 
they  may  earn  a  living.  They  must  have  knowledge 
to  prepare  them  for  the  duties  of  a  home.  They 
must  be  guided  in  -their  conduct  toward  their  fellow 
men  because  a  man's  success  depends  upon  playing 
fairly  with  his  fellows. 

Knowledge  opens  up  new  outlooks  and  creates  the 
desire  for  more  knowledge.  So  we  find  that  the 
more  people  are  educated  the  greater  will  be  the  de- 
mand for  education.  Education  is  therefore  supplied 
all  through  life  by  means  of  kindergartens,  elemen- 
tary schools,  high  schools,  colleges,  trade  schools,  pro- 
fessional schools,  extension  and  correspondence 
work,  and  free  libraries. 

Enjoyment  and  Leisure. — The  division  of  labor 
about  which  we  have  been  speaking  has  made  it  pos- 
sible for  men  to  supply  their  wants  and  still  have 
some  leisure  time  to  enjoy  the  fruits*  of  their  work. 
Leisure  has  resulted  in  the  creation  of  new  wants  be- 
cause men  seek  pleasures  and  some  one  thereby  is 
called  upon  to  do  the  work  required  to  furnish  enjoy- 
ments. When  men  have  time  to  be  interested  in 
paintings  and  sculpture,  there  is  a  demand  for  the 
work  of  artists  and  sculptors. 

Leisure  for  reading  creates  a  demand  for  books 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  9 

and  periodicals.  The  poet  and  the  author,  and 
writers  of  all  kinds,  thus  find  a  chance  to  sell  their 
writings.  Love  of  music  gives  a  livelihood  to  the 
musician  and  creates  a  demand  for  musical  instru- 
ments. The  desire  for  amusement  creates  real 
demands.  Baseball  and  other  outdoor  sports, 
gymnasiums  and  bowling  alleys,  the  theaters,  moving- 
picture  shows  and  the  circus,  travel  and  excursions 
are  only  a  few  of  the  many  means  of  satisfying  the 
wants  for  amusements. 

Mutual  Dependence. — Thus,  to  supply  the  needs 
and  wants  of  each  person  in  these  days  requires  the 
services  of  many  thousands  of  people.  Each  must 
depend  upon  others  and  all  are  directly  interested  to 
see  that  the  processes  by  which  their  wants  are  sup- 
plied are  working  smoothly. 

When  we  look  about  us  and  view  the  work  of 
people  we  must  be  impressed  with  the  extent  and 
variety  of  relations  which  we  all  have  with  our  fel- 
low men.  Our  lives,  health,  daily  labor  and  enjoy- 
ments are  dependent  upon  the  work  of  others.  It  is 
true  that  a  person  could  exist  all  alone,  but  such  a 
person  could  not  enjoy  the  benefits  of  civilized  life. 
A  man  might  raise  his  own  food  or  hunt  or  fish  for  it 
with  crude  implements  of  his  own  manufacture;  he 
might  make  his  own  clothes,  build  his  own  hut  and 
actually  live.  But  such  a  condition  is  almost  solely 
a  matter  of  fiction  in  these  times.  Nowhere  do  any 
large  number  of  people  live  alone.  Even  the  famous 
story  of  Robinson  Crusoe  does  not  show  complete 


10  OUR  AMERICA 

independence.  Much  that  that  famous  person  did, 
he  was  enabled  to  do  because  he  had  the  work  of 
others  in  the  tools  and  materials  from  the  stranded 
ship. 

Working  Together. — Out  of  the  close  relations 
which  we  have  with  our  fellow  men,  there  arises  the 
necessity  for  people  to  work  together.  In  this  way, 
they  do  the  things  which  all  want  done  for  the  com- 
mon benefit.  Likewise,  they  lay  down  rules  to  pro- 
tect the  rights  of  each.  Men  would  do  many  things 
together  even  if  they  were  not  compelled  for  their 
own  benefit  to  do  so.  We  see  proof  of  this  state- 
ment in  the  growth  of  lodges,  clubs,  fraternities  and 
other  organizations.  People  like  to  associate  with 
their  fellows :  they  subject  themselves  voluntarily  to 
the  rules  of  clubs,  lodges  and  fraternities  and  abide 
by  them.  The  spirit  of  fellowship  is  the  basis  of 
much  of  the  pleasure  of  life.  But  people  do  not  sur- 
render voluntarily  for  mere  fellowship's  sake  any  rights 
which  they  can  not  take  back.  A  man  may  withdraw 
from  a  club.  His  life,  property  and  liberty  are  not 
affected.  In  the  more  serious  matters,  however,  life, 
property  and  liberty  are  at  stake,  and  government  is 
organized  to  promote  and  protect  the  interests  of  all. 
Government  is  not  a  voluntary  organization,  but 
brings  all  within  its  scope  under  its  control. 

QUESTIONS    FOR   INVESTIGATION 

Make  a  list  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  used  in 
your  community  and  find  the  source  of  supply. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  11 

Do  the  same  for  the  principal  articles  of  clothing. 

Where  are  the  main  products  of  your  community  sent 
for  market? 

Trace  any  given  articles  about  which  you  know  from 
producer  to  consumer  showing  transportation  and  selling. 

Where  does  your  community  get  its  supply  of  milk? 
Meat?  Vegetables?  Fuel? 

What  would  happen  in  your  community  if  the  supply 
of  food  from  outside  were  cut  off  for  ten  days? 

Have  you  had  any  experience  when  there  was  a  short- 
age of  important  products?  How  was  the  condition 
met? 

What  different  occupations  are  followed  by  the  men 
and  women  whom  you  know? 

Show  how  each  occupation  is  necessary  to  the  general 
welfare. 

Make  a  list  of  food  necessities  and  also  a  list  of  luxuries 
in  common  use. 

For  what  necessities  does  your  community  depend  upon 
outside  supply? 

What  necessities  are  produced  in  your  community? 

If  the  supply  of  outside  products  should  be  cut  off,  what 
articles  in  common  use  would  you  have  to  get  along  with- 
out? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  liberty? 

Give  all  the  reasons  you  can  why  the  people  must  depend 
upon  one  another  and  work  together. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "division  of  labor"? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  division  of  labor? 

What  objections  can  you  raise  to  the  system  of  divi- 
sion of  labor? 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  work  of  the  farmer  is  more  impor- 
tant than  that  of  the  merchant.  (Also  compare  impor- 
tance of  other  occupations.) 

Resolved  that  people  in  earlier  times  with  fewer  wants 


12  OUR  AMERICA 

were  better   off  than   the   people   of   to-day   with  greatly 
increased  wants. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations. 
Chaps.  I-II-III. 

(This   was   the   earliest    statement   of   the   idea    of 

division  of  labor.) 
Burch  and  Hearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 

Chap.  Ill  "Problem  of  Consumption." 

Chap.  IV  "The  Problem  of  the  Standard  of  Living/' 
The  United  States  Department  of  Commerce  collects 

information  about  commerce  of  the  country,    showing 

what  we  buy  from  foreign  countries  and  what  we 

sell   to   them.      This    is    published   in    the  Statistical 

Abstract  which  may  be  obtained  free. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State  University,  Heads  of  the  Departments  of  Eco- 
nomics, Political  Science  or  Sociology,  asking  specific 
questions. 


CHAPTER  II 
SUPPLYING  COMMON  NEEDS 

We  have  taken  a  view  of  the  way  men  live  and 
labor  and  of  the  dependence  of  each  upon  all.  We 
have  seen  how  each  person  or  group  of  persons  pro- 
duces certain  things  and  by  a  system  of  exchanging 
goods,  secures  from  many  other  people  the  things 
upon  which  to  live. 

General. — It  is  a  matter  of  gceat  concern  to  all 
people,  therefore,  that  the  exchange  of  goods  be  made 
as  easy  as  possible.  If  one  man  produces  wheat 
and  nothing  else,  he  must  exchange  part  of  it  for 
other  articles  of  food  and  for  clothing  and  shelter. 
The  man  who  produces  shoes  must  exchange  them 
for  things  to  eat  and  other  things  to  wear. 

Highways. — The  first  need  is  to  have  means  of 
communicating  and  of  transporting  the  articles  which 
are  to  be  exchanged.  There  must  be  highways  over 
which  to  carry  goods.  All  people  have  a  common 
interest  in  the  highways  and  all  should  act  together 
to  make  and  maintain  them. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  plan  of  building 
roads  for  profit  was  tried.  Private  parties  bought  a 
rights-of-way  and  built  roads  expecting  profit  from 
a  small  fee — a  toll — charged  for  each  vehicle  using 

13 


14  OUR  AMERICA 

the  road.  Almost  everywhere  to-day,  however,  these 
roads  have  been  changed  into  public  roads  because 
they  did  not  pay  the  private  owners  and  because  the 
increasing  importance  of  roads  made  the  people  see 
that  roads  must  be  free  to  all.  To-day,  practically 
all  the  roads  in  this  country  are  public  highways. 
No  one  would  think  of  having  the  roads  managed 
in  any  other  way,  because  roads  make  possible  an 
easy  exchange  of  the  means  of  living.  Good  roads 
make  exchanges  still  easier  and  so  all  people  are 
interested  in  having  roads  good  enough  to  bring  the 
cost  and  labor  of  getting  things  to  market  down  to 
the  lowest  possible  amount. 

Streets. — Streets  may  be  considered  the  same  as 
roads.  They  are  merely  city  or  town  roads,  im- 
proved to'  meet  the  requirements  of  heavier  traffic. 
They  are  the  first  necessity  of  a  city  and  the  welfare 
of  each  person  is  dependent  upon  keeping  them  free 
and  open.  -  A  matter  of  such  great  importance  could 
not  be  left  in  private  hands.  It  would  be  intolerable 
to  have  streets  shut  off  by  toll  gates.  As  in  the  case 
of  roads  and  bridges,  they  must  be  free  for  if  they 
are  not,  that  much  burden  is  added  to  the  people  in 
exchanging  goods  and  thereby  to  the  cost  of  living. 

Bridges. — Likewise  with  bridges.  They  are  a  part 
of  the  road  and  if  they  are  not  free,  the  toll  charged 
adds  to  the  expense  of  carrying  goods.  We  must 
have  bridges  for  the  cost  of  ferrying  or  the  dangers 
of  fording  would  add  to  the  cost  of  transportation. 
So  bridges  are  treated  almost  everywhere  in  this 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  15 

country  as  a  part  of  the  road  and  are  made  and  kept 
up  by  the  people.  There  are  some  examples  of 
bridges  owned  by  companies  where  a  toll  is  charged 
but  these  are  rapidly  being  changed  into  public 
bridges  and  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country  they  are 
now  wholly  unknown. 

Railroads,  Canals  and  Steamships. — Roads,  streets 
and  bridges  are  largely  for  community  use.  They 
are  the  smaller  arteries  while  canals,  railroads  and 
waterways  are  the  main  arteries  for  exchanging 
goods.  If  a  township  or  a  county  supplied  its  own 
needs  and  offered  a  market  for  all  it  produced,  the 
people  of  that  township  or  county  would  have  little 
interest  in  canals  and  railroads — the  main  arteries. 
They  would  make  their  exchange  of  goods  over  the 
highways  and  their  wants  would  be  satisfied.  But 
we  have  seen  that  all — even  in  the  remote  sections — 
depend  upon  many  parts  of  the  world  for  the  things 
which  they  live  upon  and  enjoy.  They  likewise  send 
their  products  to  many  parts  of  the  world.  Like  the 
little  rivulet  which  finds  its  way  into  the  creek  and 
thence  into  the  river  tributary  and  finally  into  the 
main  stream  and  the  ocean,  the  products  of  men  find 
their  way  over  the  local  highways,  on  the  main  roads 
to  the  shipping  points,  thence  by  railroads  or  canals 
to  the  great  centers  or  to  the  wharves  of  steamships 
which  in  turn  carry  them  to  other  countries.  These 
ships  bring  back  other  products  which  are  carried  by 
railroads  and  canals  to  country  centers  and  by 
highway  to  the  door  of  the  consumer.  Altogether 


16  OUR  AMERICA 

the  highways,  canals,  railroads  and  steamships  make 
a  complete  system  of  travel  and  transport  for  the 
whole  world  and  every  person  in  the  world  is  de- 
pendent upon  them. 

Cost  of  Transportation. — Suppose  that  the  roads 
of  this  country  were  so  bad  that  it  would  cost  twenty- 
five  cents  more  a  bushel  to  get  wheat  to  the  railroad ; 
and  suppose  that  toll  roads  and  bridges  took  ten  cents 
a  bushel;  and  that  the  railroads  or  canals  took  twice 
as  much  for  carrying  as  at  present;  it  is  clear  that 
the  person  who  bought  wheat  would  have  to  pay 
considerably  more  for  it.  So,  also,  the  product  which 
the  wheat  seller  buys  would  cost  more.  In  the  inter- 
est of  all,  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  make  the  means 
of  transportation  the  very  best  in  order  to  keep  the 
cost  as  low  as  possible. 

The  People's  Interest. — The  people  keep  down 
the  cost  of  transportation  in  the  case  of  highways 
by  making  them  free  for  all  and  by  expending  large 
sums  to  make  better  roads  and  to  keep  them  repaired. 
The  states  own  the  canals  and  boatmen  run  their 
own  boats  upon  *them  usually  paying  a  small  toll. 
The  United  States  built  the  Panama  Canal  for  the 
purpose  of  making  it  easier  to  trade  with  other  coun- 
tries. 

The  people  also  helped  to  build  the  railroads.  They 
gave  large  sums  of  money  and  millions  of  acres  of 
land  to  companies  to  build  railroads.  When  rail- 
roads charged  too  much  for  their  services,  the  people 
made  them  reduce  rates;  when  they  failed  to  give 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  17 

good  service,  the  people  made  them  put  on  more 
trains  and  run  them  better.  This  was  in  line  with 
the  idea  that  the  welfare  of  the  people  depended  upon 
making  it  possible  to  exchange  goods  at  the  least 
cost  and  with  the  least  delay  and  loss.  Perhaps  the 
same  result  will  happen  with  the  railroads  as  with 
toll  roads.  They  may  become  unprofitable  to  private 
owners  and  the  people  may  buy  them  and  convert 
them  into  public  roads. 

Steamships  have  been  built  for  private  profit,  but 
again  if  it  should  happen  that  an  unfair  charge  were 
made  whereby  trade  would  be  crippled,  the  people 
would  probably  try  first  to  regulate  the  price  charged, 
and  if  that  failed  they  would  finally  buy  or  build 
ships  and  go  into  the  business. 

The  Post-Office. — The  people  have  in  many  other 
ways  arranged  to  make  exchange  easier.  The  post- 
office  was  established  and  run  at  cost,  and  often  be- 
low, to  help  the  exchange  of  goods.  It  is  a  simple 
fact  that  without  the  post-office,  a  heavy  burden 
would  be  put  upon  trade,  for  a  man  would  have  no 
means  of  knowing  where  to  sell  his  goods  except  by 
personal  trips  which  would  involve  heavy  expense 
and  long  delays.  Too  important  to  trust  to  private 
hands,  the  people  established  the  post-office,  built 
post  roads,  established  city  and  rural  delivery  and 
provided  for  the  sending  of  money  by  mail. 

Telegraph  and  Telephone. — With  the  invention  of 
the  telegraph  and  telephone  and  their  wide  use  in  the 
service  of  business,  the  people  have  taken  an  active 


18  OUR  AMERICA 

hand  in  making  them  aid  in  exchange.  They,  also, 
are  becoming  too  important  to  business  to  leave  in 
private  hands  and  already  there  are  strong  indi- 
cations that  they  will  be  made  a  part  of  the  post-office 
system. 

Money. — There  could  be  little  trading  if  it  were 
not  for  money.  If  a  person  who  had  a  bushel  of 
wheat  wished  to  buy  a  pair  of  shoes  he  would  have 
to  find  the  party  who  had  shoes  and  wanted  wheat. 
Trading  would  necessarily  be  limited  under  such 
conditions.  To  overcome  that  difficulty,  the  people 
build  mints  and  coin  money.  Money  serves  as  a 
medium  of  exchange  so  that  the  person  who  has 
wheat  can  sell  it  and  take  the  money  to  the  man  with 
shoes  and  buy  what  he  wants.  Thus  exchange  is 
made  easier. 

Drainage  and  Irrigation. — There  are  many  things 
of  common  benefit  which  men  do  together  which 
could  not  be  done  single-handed. 

Drainage  is  one  of  these  operations  for  common 
benefit.  It  may  be  surprising  to  learn  that  in  1915 
there  were  seventy-five  million  acres  of  land  in  the 
United  States  which  were  a  useless  swamp  and  that 
there  were  one  hundred  fifty  million  acres  which  did 
not  produce  more  than  twenty  per  cent,  of  what  they 
should  produce  because  they  were  not  properly 
drained. 

Now  in  most  cases,  it  would  be  useless  for  one 
farm  owner  to  try  to  drain  his  swamp  land.  If  he  did, 
he  would  cause  trouble  by  running  the  water  off  on 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  19 

his  neighbor's  land.  It  is  necessary  that  the  people  of 
the  area  to  be  drained  cooperate  and  make  one  ditch 
which  will  drain  the  land  of  all.  So  the  persons  af- 
fected build  and  maintain  the  necessary  ditches,  drains 
and  works. 

So,  also,  with  irrigation.  It  would  be  out  of  the 
question  for  one  owner  to  construct  the  necessary 
works  to  bring  water  long  distances  and  provide  irri- 
gation canals.  All,  therefore,  work  together  and 
build  one  system  for  the  service  of  all. 

City  Needs. — Where  large  numbers  of  persons  live 
close  together  as  they  do  in  cities,  extra  needs  arise 
for  which  the  whole  community  must  provide.  The 
farmer  drills  his  own  well  and  therefore  has  his  own 
water  supply.  That  is  impossible  in  large  cities  be- 
cause of  the  danger  to  health.  The  cities  therefore 
provide  systems  of  water  supply,  sometimes  bringing 
water  hundreds  of  miles. 

Disposal  of  Waste. — The  problem  of  disposing  of 
waste  becomes  important  in  a  city  of  any  consider- 
able size.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  a  sewer  system 
and  this  can  not  be  done  by  a  few  persons.  Nothing 
short  of  the  whole  city  can  successfully  undertake 
such  works.  It  is  too  important  to  be  left  to  private 
action,  so  the  city  builds  the  sewerage  system  and 
provides  for  the  disposal  of  garbage. 

Street  Railways. — Another  problem  which  con- 
fronts the  people  of  a  city  is  that  of  providing  street 
railways.  If  the  inhabitants  are  not  all  to  be  huddled 
together  in  a  few  down-town  squares,  means  must 


20  OUR  AMERICA 

be  furnished  to  carry  them  from  their  homes  to  their 
work  and  back.  It  is  just  as  much  the  duty  of  the 
city  to  provide  such  means  as  it  is  to  provide  streets 
and  alleys.  In  each  case,  the  welfare  of  all  depends 
upon  it. 

In  the  case  of  street  railways  as  in  the  case  of  rail- 
roads, private  enterprise  has  found  it  profitable  to  un- 
dertake the  work.  It  is  of  too  great  importance,  how- 
ever, to  leave  the  matter  entirely  to  the  will  of  a  few 
people  who  seek  profit.  Rates  should  be  reasonable 
and  service  good  and  if  private  parties  can  not  give 
good  service  at  a  fair  rate,  the  public  should  maintain 
the  system  as  they  do  roads  and  streets. 

Education. — We  come  now  to  a  group  of  services 
which  the  people  perform  for  themselves  and  which 
are  not  concerned  with  the  necessities  of  life.  When 
man  has  provided  for  his  actual  living,  he  turns  his 
attention  to  the  means  of  education  and  enjoyment. 
The  first  thing  he  builds  for  the  use  of  all  is  the 
school.  In  fact,  the  school  has  often  preceded  many 
of  the  necessities.  We  are  now  past  the  early  stages 
in  all  parts  of  this  country,  and  the  schools,  like  the 
highways,  are  everywhere.  It  takes  an  army  of 
six  hundred  thousand  teachers  to  conduct  the  schools, 
while  probably  an  equal  number  help  to  manage  school 
affairs.  Everywhere  in  this  country  the  elementary 
and  high  schools  are  provided  at  public  expense.  Vo- 
cational schools  are  quite  commonly  provided.  Col- 
leges and  universities  are  built  and  run  by  the  people 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  21 

and  it  may  be  said  that  education  from  the  kindergar- 
ten to  the  university  is  provided  by  the  common  effort 
of  all  for  the  benefit  of  each. 

Libraries. — Second  in  importance  to  the  schools 
come  libraries.  These  are  provided  by  the  people  to 
give  information,  in  order  to  continue  the  process  of 
education  begun  in  the  schools,  and  to  develop  among 
the  people  a  taste  for  better  reading. 

Other  Means  of  Education. — In  many  cities  there 
are  also  provided  art  galleries  where  the  artistic  edu- 
cation of  the  people  is  broadened.  Cities  and  com- 
munities also  build  monuments  and  works  of  art 
upon  the  streets,  in  the  parks,  and  in  and  about  public 
buildings. 

Recreation. — Parks,  playgrounds,  gymnasiums, 
bathing  beaches,  skating  ponds  and  other  play  places 
are  generally  provided  by  progressive  cities.  Even 
moving-picture  shows  and  theaters  are  in  some  places 
owned  and  managed  by  the  people  for  their  common 
enjoyment. 

Charities. — The  recognition  of  our  duty  toward 
our  fellows  brought  about  by  our  dependence  on  one 
another,  our  natural  instincts  of  neighborliness  and 
the  broadening  influence  of  education,  have  caused 
us  to  provide  for  the  care  of  the  unfortunate.  Cities 
and  states  provide  hospitals  for  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  injured ;  asylums  for  the  insane ;  homes  for  the 
aged  and  the  poor;  orphan  homes  and  homes  for 
old  soldiers  and  their  dependent  children.  These 


22  OUR  AMERICA 

institutions  are  the  helping  hand  for  those  who  for 
any  reason  need  special  assistance  in  supplying  the 
necessities  of  life. 

The  above  statements  do  not  mention  all  of  the 
things  in  which  the  people  engage  to  supply  needs 
and  enjoyments,  but  they  serve  to  show  the  impor- 
tance of  the  subject  with  which  we  are  dealing.  To 
provide  all  of  these  things  requires  vast  sums  of 
money  and  great  numbers  of  men  and  women.  The 
doing  of  these  things  forms  a  part  of  the  process  we 
call  government. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Are  there  any  toll  roads  or  bridges  in  your  community? 
Ask  the  older  people  of  the  community  if  they  remember 
any  toll  roads  or  bridges. 

Give  all  of  the  reasons  you  can  for  free  roads,  streets, 
bridges  and  other  means  of  transportation. 

What  is  the  relation  between  bad  roads  and  the  cost 
of  living? 

Make  a  list  of  all  of  the  things  which  the  people  in 
your  community  own  for  common  use. 

Show  how  money  aids  exchange.  Would  it  be  possible 
to  have  money  made  by  private  individuals  or  compa- 
nies? 

Point  out  the  similarity  between  the  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone and  the  post-office  as  a  means  of  exchange. 

What  are  the  principal  advantages  of  having  the  post- 
office  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  people? 

What  reasons  can  you  give  why  the  people  should  or 
should  not  own  the  telegraphs  and  telephones? 

Do  the  farm  lands  of  your  community  need  draining? 
Has  any  drainage  work  been  done?  Visit  any  such  work 
and  explain  how  it  is  done. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  23 

Which  is  the  more  important  common  need,  roads  or 
schools  ? 

What  products  are  hauled  over  the  highways  to  market 
from  your  community?  What  is  the  average  size  of  loads 
which  it  is  possible  to  haul  to  market?  If  the  roads  were 
improved  to  what  extent  could  the  size  of  the  loads  be 
increased?  How  much  would  each  farmer  save  in  time  if 
such  improvements  were  made? 

Do  the  arguments  for  ownership  of  roads  and  streets 
apply  also  to  street  railways  and  railroads? 

To  what  extent  would  trade  be  carried  on  if  people  had 
no  money  but  had  to  depend  upon  barter  of  goods? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  all  the  public  means  of  transportation 
should  be  owned  by  the  people. 

Resolved  that  the  people  who  use  the  highways  should 
pay  a  tax  for  the  privilege. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 
Chap.  XXIV  "Transportation." 
Chap.  XXVIII  "Instruments  of  Exchange." 
Chap.  XXX  "Foreign  Trade." 

Later  chapters  discuss  various  phases  of  this  chapter. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Later  chapters  give  specific  information  about  sources 
from  which  to  obtain  information  on  the  subjects 
discussed. 


CHAPTER  III 
PROVIDING    FOR    COMMON    PROTECTION 

In  early  times  the  principal  object  for  which  people 
worked  together  was  the  protection  of  life.  Often 
this  protection  was  against  savages  or  wild  beasts, 
but  the  most  important  need  in  modern  times  has 
been  against  hostile  tribes  or  nations. 

Protection  of  Life. — The  people  in  the  early  times 
lived  in  villages  surrounded  by  walls  or  stockades 
and  went  out  to  work  their  fields.  They  sometimes 
built  forts  to  which  they  could  go  in  times  of  danger 
and  all  joined  forces  against  any  common  enemy. 
We  have  passed  beyond  some  of  the  dangers  which 
beset  our  forefathers.  Scarcely  anywhere  in  this 
country  is  there  need  of  stockaded  towns  or  of  forti- 
fied houses  to  protect  the  people  from  savages  or 
wild  beasts  or  from  tribes  or  bandits.  Except  for 
some  of  the  remote  regions  of  the  West,  the  country 
has  become  a  nation  of  peaceful  inhabitants. 

Protection  Against  Foreign  Countries. — There  are 
no  lawless  bands  to  be  feared,  but  there  is  the  danger 
from  other  nations,  who  may  seek  to  attack  our 
country,  and  in  doing  so,  deprive  our  people  of  life, 
libeRty  and  property.  They  may  refuse  to  give  us 
our  just  rights  in  the  trade  with  other  countries  and 

24 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  25 

compel  us,  in  self-respect,  to  maintain  them.  We 
know  that  wars  are  likely  to  occur  and  that  every 
nation  must  protect  itself.  When  one  nation  is  armed 
and  ready  to  fight,  every  other  nation  must  fear  it 
and  be  prepared.  Just  as  the  tribes  had  to  be  ready 
to  fight  other  tribes  when  they  were  attacked,  each 
nation,  however  peaceful  its  people  may  be,  must  be 
prepared  against  any  powerful  nation  which  may  be- 
come its  enemy. 

Army  and  Navy. — The  people,  therefore,  need  an 
army  and  a  navy  and  since  these  things  are  for  the 
common  defense,  they  should  be  supported  by  all 
the  people.  One  thing  should  always  be  kept  in 
mind,  namely,  that  in  this  country  an  army  and  navy 
are  for  defense  only — never  to  make  war  upon  others. 
Our  army  and  navy  should  be  large  enough  to  defend 
the  country  against  the  strongest  enemy  that  may 
attack  it.  Because  of  the  fortunate  position  of  the 
United  States  we  need  not  maintain  so  large  a  force 
as  the  nations  of  Europe,  which  have  hostile  coun- 
tries at  their  very  doors. 

There  are  times  also  when,  even  in  this  peaceful 
country,  serious  disorders  take  place  causing  loss  of 
life  and  property.  Mobs  of  men  excited  by  some 
event  may  seek  to  wreak  vengeance,  or,  to  attain  a 
certain  object,  may  interfere  with  the  process  of  busi- 
ness, and  cause  the  whole  community  to  suffer  loss. 
They  may  even  go  further  and  attempt  to  break  up 
the  nation  and  form  a  separate  one  as  in  the  Civil 
War  from  1861  to  1865.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  of  the 


26  OUR  AMERICA 

people  to  aid  in  maintaining  safety  and  permanent 
peace  by  having  an  army  prepared  to  prevent  any 
such  disorders. 

Police. — The  army  can  be  used  for  protection  only 
in  matters  of  great  importance.  It  can  not  be  used 
to  catch  a  burglar  or  a  horse  thief  or  to  prevent 
ordinary  crimes. 

For  protection  against  such  common  dangers  as 
these  the  people  organize  police  and  detective  forces 
in  cities  to  prevent  crime  and  catch  criminals.  Out- 
side the  cities  they  provide  sheriffs,  constables  and 
deputies  for  the  same  purpose.  The  states  often 
maintain  detective  forces  and  state  police  to  ferret  out 
and  prevent  crime.  The  peoplt  of  the  nation,  acting 
as  a  whole,  have  marshals  and  their  deputies  to 
enforce  the  laws  of  the  nation.  They  have  also  a 
detective  bureau,  known  as  the  Secret  Service,  to 
prevent  crime  and  to  bring  criminals  to  justice. 

Common  Dangers. — We  have  thus  far  in  this  chap- 
ter spoken  of  the  protection  of  the  people  against  oth- 
er nations  and  against  violence  and  crime.  Let  us 
now  consider  those  regulations  which  protect  the  peo- 
ple from  the  dangers  which  arise  from  the  close  rela- 
tions they  have  with  their  fellow  men. 

We  have  seen  how  closely  men  work  together  and 
how  they  are  dependent  upon  one  another  for  the 
things  upon  which  to  live.  In  the  regular  course  of 
events  people  have  crowded  together  in  cities  and 
towns.  Thousands  may  live  in  a  single  city  block. 
The  streets  swarm  with  people  and  vehicles.  Under 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  27 

such  conditions  dangers  of  disease  and  accident  arise 
and  the  people  acting  together  try  to  lessen  these 
dangers  by  regulations.  They  do  tjiis  because  un- 
healthy or  crippled  people  are  a  loss  to  all,  and  every 
disease  and  accident  that  can  be  prevented  should 
be. 

Preventing  Disease. — Let  us  see  what  are  some  of 
these  regulations.  One  of  the  most  important  is  the 
prevention  of  the  spread  of  disease.  This  is  done 
by  means  of  quarantine  and  disinfection.  We  are 
all  familiar  with  these  processes.  Almost  everywhere, 
in  country  and  city  alike,  contagious  diseases  are 
quarantined  and  the  patients  are  kept  in  their  houses. 
In  case  of  dangerous  diseases,  a  strict  quarantine  is 
kept  up  against  all  persons  in  the  place.  After  the 
disease  has  passed,  a  complete  fumigation  follows 
and  the  disease  is  thus  stamped  out.  Because  of  the 
dangers  of  spreading  disease  in  schools,  many  places 
require  vaccination  against  smallpox.  A  great  many 
schools  keep  doctors  and  nurses  to  discover  and  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  diseases  among  school  children. 

Sanitation  and  Health. — A  second  important  regu- 
lation is  directed  against  unhealthy  conditions  which 
affect  others.  Unhealthy  conditions  are  generally 
prohibited.  A  man  can  not  leave  decaying  material 
or  filth,  or  permit  unsanitary  conditions  on  his  own 
premises,  if  it  affects  others.  We  recognize  that 
people  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  live  in  filth  and 
disease  even  when  their  doing  so  does  not  affect 
others,  so  strict  regulations  are  made  to  prevent  the 


28  OUR  AMERICA 

spread  of  disease.  These  take  many  forms.  The 
food  and  milk  supply  is  guarded;  sanitary  plumbing 
is  required;  overcrowding  of  people  is  prevented; 
sanitary  conditions  under  which  to  work  are  required 
and  proper  ventilation  in  factories  is  compelled;  sani- 
tary disposal  of  waste  is  required  and  also  sanitary 
care  of  foodstuffs;  spitting  on  the  sidewalks  or  in 
public  places  is  prohibited  and  regulations  to  pre- 
vent the  use  of  the  common  drinking  cup  and  to  re- 
quire sanitary  bedding  in  hotels  are  made.  These 
examples  will  serve  to  show  the  variety  of  things 
which  the  people  do  to  protect  themselves  in  matters 
of  health. 

We  shall  take  up  this  subject  of  public  health 
more  fully  later,  but  it  should  be  remarked  here  that 
'millions  of  lives  have  been  saved  by  protective  health 
work.  Without  public  health  work  only  a  small 
part  of  the  people  would  grow  up  to  maturity. 

Health  in  City  and  Country. — More  health  work 
is  done  in  cities  than  in  the  country  and  as  a  result 
the  cities  as  a  whole  are  becoming  nearly  as  healthy 
as  the  country  although  by  all  odds  the  country 
ought  to  be  the  healthier.  Some  cities  are  actually 
healthier  than  the  rural  districts.  The  country  dis- 
tricts need  to  be  aroused  on  this  subject. 

Accidents  on  Highways. — Protection  from  acci- 
dents increases  in  importance  with  the  growth  of 
cities  and  the  extended  use  of  motor  vehicles.  In 
quiet  country  townships  a  few  years  ago  there  was 
scarcely  any  need  for  regulation  to  prevent  acci- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  29 

dents  on  the  highways.  Custom  fixed  the  rule  of 
the  road  so  that  every  driver  turned  to  the  right 
when  meeting  a  vehicle  or  turned  out  on  the  left 
when  overtaking  and  passing  another  vehicle.  Speed 
was  not  a  factor.  There  were  no  limits  fixed,  but 
of  course  reckless  driving  was  prohibited.  About 
the  only  regulation  necessary  dealt  with  traction 
engines  which  often  frightened  horses  and  caused 
damages.  To-day,  with  the  use  of  the  automobile, 
the  case  is  different  and  many  regulations  are  needed 
to  prevent  accidents.  Laws  therefore  limit  speed, 
fix  a  code  of  rules,  generally  require  a  competent 
driver,  and  otherwise  protect  the  public  from  dan- 
ger. 

Accidents  on  the  Streets. — The  illustration  above 
indicates  what  is  taking  place  everywhere  and  espe- 
cially in  the  cities.  There  the  regulation  of  traffic 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  it  to  move  fast  without 
danger  of  accident,  has  always  been  a  big  problem. 
With  the  coming  of  the  automobile  and  the  increase 
of  traffic  on  narrow  streets,  the  problem  has  vastly 
increased. 

The  police  are  called  upon  to  handle  this  prob- 
lem and  they  do  it  by  regulations  fitted  to  the  par- 
ticular place.  Corner  policemen  signal  the  vehicles 
to  move  first  on  one  street  across  the  corner  and 
then  on  the  other;  lines  are  drawn  to  guide  drivers; 
safety  zones  are  established  by  lines  or  ropes  to 
protect  people  getting  on  and  off  street-cars;  heavy 
traffic  is  prohibited  on  some  streets ;  and  on  others 


30  OUR  AMERICA 

traffic  is  permitted  to  go  only  one  way;  speeding  is 
prohibited;  and  automobiles  are  prohibited  from  pass- 
ing a  standing  street-car  on  the  side  where  passengers 
are  getting  on  or  off.  Traffic  policemen  are  sta- 
tioned, not  to  arrest  people,  but  to  help  them  in 
places  where  traffic  is  confusing.  On  some  crowded 
corners  in  large  cities  as  many  as  four  policemen 
are  on  guard. 

Although  not  yet  entirely  satisfactory  the  safety 
regulations  are  saving  thousands  from  painful  acci- 
dents or  death.  The  problem  grows  more  compli- 
cated with  increased  population,  and  will  always  be 
more  and  more  difficult  due  to  the  increased  amount 
of  traffic. 

Street  Lighting. — Another  work  which  is  im- 
portant in  the  prevention  of  accidents  in  cities  is 
the  provision  for  street  lighting.  Lighting  is  also 
an  important  factor  in  the  prevention  and  detection 
of  crime  and  thus  serves  a  double  purpose  in 
the  all  important  task  of  protecting  the  lives  and 
property  of  the  people.  Lighthouses  at  dangerous 
points  on  the  coast  serve  a  similar  purpose  in  pre- 
venting accidents  to  steamships,  thereby  promoting 
the  safety  of  commerce  and  of  the  people  engaged 
in  it. 

Fire  Protection. — Protection  from  fire  forms  a 
good  illustration  of  the  way  that  people  work  to- 
gether in  a  common  cause.  In  the  country  districts 
where  the  danger  is  not  great  there  is  no  organized 
fire  department.  All  people  turn  out  to  help  a  neigh- 


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THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  31 

bor  fight  a  fire,  but  there  is  no  organization  and  no 
special  apparatus.  In  the  villages  where  there  is 
greater  danger  of  the  spread  of  a  fire  some  efforts 
are  commonly  made  to  provide  for  apparatus  and 
water  supply,  leaving  the  work,  as  in  the  country, 
to  volunteers.  In  larger  places,  however,  the  risk  to 
property  and  life  is  so  great  that  the  towns  and 
cities  maintain  trained  fire  departments  and  efficient 
fire-fighting  apparatus,  at  the  public  expense.  The 
•danger  to  all  becomes  so  great  that  all  join  for 
the  common  benefit. 

Accidents  in  Factories. — In  the  factories  and 
workshops  where  millions  of  the  people  labor,  pro- 
tection against  common  dangers  is  being  enforced, 
for,  amid  the  complex  machinery  of  modern  fac- 
tories, a  man  can  not,  by  his  own  efforts,  protect 
himself.  Many  thousands  are  killed  every  year  in 
the  factories  of  the  United  States  and  the  injured 
number  hundreds  of  thousands.  The  number  of  men 
killed  and  injured  each  year  makes  the  losses  in  some 
terrible  battles  seem  insignificant  in  comparison. 

To  promote  the  safety  of  workers,  laws  are  en- 
acted requiring  such  matters  as  safe  construction  of 
machinery,  guards  on  all  dangerous  parts  such  as 
saws  and  gears,  and  shorter  hours  for  laborers  which 
lessen  accidents  caused  by  fatigue.  Health  of 
workers  is  cared  for  also  by  requirements  for  venti- 
lation, proper  lighting,  blowers  and  dust  removers, 
and  sanitary  surroundings.  Practises  dangerous  to 
health  are  not  permitted  and  everything  is  being 


32  OUR  AMERICA 

done  by  law  to  save  the  workers  from  unnecessary 
harm.  At  the  same  time,  through  education,  work- 
ers are  learning  how  to  protect  their  health. 

Safety  Devices  on  Trains. — For  the  safety  of  the 
public  as  well  as  the  workers,  many  requirements 
for  safety  are  fixed  for  the  operation  of  trains,  street- 
cars and  other  conveyances.  Automatic  couplers 
which  the  law  compelled  railroads  to  put  on  their 
cars  have  saved  thousands  of  lives.  The  air-brake 
which  also  has  been  required  makes  the  handling' 
of  trains  much  safer  than  in  the  old  days  of  the 
hand-brake.  Block  signals  have  helped  wonderfully 
to  prevent  collisions.  Long  hours  for  the  men  re- 
sponsible for  the  running  of  the  trains  have  been 
prohibited  because  the  danger  is  too  great  to  the 
public  when  men,  who  are  tired  out,  are  still  com- 
pelled to  continue  their  work.  Thus  the  hours  of 
railroad  engineers  have  been  limited  to  sixteen,  and 
of  the  telegraphers  in  train  service  to  nine  hours. 

Protection  Against  Fraud. — The  protection  of  the 
people  against  fraud  is  another  important  phase  of 
the  matter  we  are  discussing.  There  used  to  be 
an  old  maxim,  "Let  the  buyer  beware"  which  every 
one  was  supposed  to  follow.  The  buyer  had  to  look 
out  for  himself  under  that  maxim.  In  less  complex 
society,  that  rule  worked  fairly  well,  but  to-day  it 
would  mean  the  oppression  of  the  poor,  ignorant  or 
careless,  by  the  crafty  or  strong.  A  person  can  boy  a 
bushel  of  wheat  and  easily  see  that  he  gets  a  square 
deal,  but  the  same  person  can  not  know  that  he 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  33 

is  getting  a  square  deal  when  he  buys  prepared 
foods,  such  as  canned  beef  or  vegetables.  So  many 
cheats  have  been  imposed  on  the  people  from 
fraudulent  goods  that  the  demand  has  come  to  re- 
quire pure  food  and  honest  labeling.  Likewise,  the 
people  demand  pure  drugs  and  similarly  the  cry  is 
coming  for  pure  fabrics  because  of  the  cheating  in 
the  quality  of  rubber,  silk,  woolen,  cotton,  etc. 

Honest  Weights  and  Measures. — Honest  weights 
and  measures  have  also  come  to  be  insisted  upon. 
Some  people  keep  weighing  scales  at  home  and  pre- 
vent fraud  on  themselves,  but  the  majority  do  not. 
States  and  cities  are  therefore  giving  attention  to 
the  subject  to  see  that  dealers  give  honest  weights 
and  measures.  Such  regulations  are  a  help  to  honest 
dealers  because  they  do  not  have  to  compete  with 
those  who  undersell  them  by  cheating  on  weights 
and  measures. 

Banking. — Another  phase  of  business,  which  is  so 
close  to  the  people  as  to  need  special  control  to  pro- 
tect them  from  fraud,  is  that  of  banking.  Banking 
is  a  means  by  which  the  money  of  the  people  is  gath- 
ered together  in  the  form  of  deposits  in  the  banks 
and  used  for  the  business  of  the  community.  A 
depositor  wants  safety  for  his  funds  and  he  wants  to 
be  able  to  get  his  money  when  he  needs  it.  The 
banks  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  funds  de- 
posited. 

Every  one  is  concerned  that  the  banks  be  run  hon- 
estly. The  temptation  to  tricksters  to  engage  in  the 


34  OUR  AMERICA 

business  is  so  great  that  the  strictest  kind  of  regula- 
tions are  needed  to  prevent  fraud  and  to  protect  hon- 
est bankers.  All  banks  are  strictly  controlled  by  the 
state  or  national  government  and  very  few  banking 
losses  now  occur.  With  closer  care  even  the  losses 
which  now  sometimes  occur  will  be  prevented. 

Insurance. — Insurance  is  another  phase  of  busi- 
ness which  is  closely  regulated,  in  order  to  protect 
the  innocent  person  who  is  insured.  This  business, 
like  banking,  offers  a  great  chance  for  tricksters1 
unless  it  is  closely  regulated.  When  a  person  takes 
out  insurance  of  any  kind,  he  wants  to  be  sure  that 
he  will  be  paid  if  losses  occur.  In  the  case  of  life 
insurance,  the  payment  may  be  many  years  later  and 
the  people  must  see  that  the  business  shall  be  con- 
ducted so  that  the  policies  will  be  paid  when  due. 

Ordinary  individuals  who  take  insurance  are  not 
capable  of  understanding  so  complicated  a  matter 
as  insurance.  They  must  rely  on  the  honesty  of  the 
business.  The  business  would  not  be  possible  at  all 
unless  people  had  confidence  in  the  future  as  well  as 
the  present  management.  The  people  therefore 
make  strict  regulations  to  insure  the  safety  of  the 
business  and  to  prevent  frauds. 

Blue  Sky  Companies. — The  promotion  of  fake  com- 
panies for  the  purpose  of  cheating  people  is  another 
kind  of  fraud  worked  on  the  public.  Such  concerns 
are  called  "blue  sky"  companies.  They  sell  stocks 
and  bonds  in  fake  concerns  and  lands  which  often 
exist  only  in  the  "blue  sky."  Stocks  in  mining  com- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  35 

panics  have  been  for  years  a  favorite  fraud.  Stories 
of  fabulous  profits  in  mines  have  caused  many 
unwary  persons  to  invest  their  dollars.  The  pro- 
moter gets  the  money  and  the  purchaser  gets  a  finely 
printed  stock  certificate  which  proves  worthless. 

Purchasers  should,  of  course,  be  cautious.  Every 
one  should  look  to  the  character  of  the  men  who  are 
promoting  a  company  as  well  as  to  the  prospects  of 
the  business  before  he  invests  his  money.  We  recog- 
nize, however,  that  many  will  be  imposed  upon  by 
clever  swindlers  and  so  efforts  are  made  by  the 
people  to  prevent  such  frauds.  In  many  states  every 
company  must  be  examined  as  to  its  soundness  be- 
fore it  is  permitted  to  sell  its  stock.  The  post-office 
department  is  constantly  preventing  frauds  by  re- 
fusing the  use  of  the  mails  to  any  concern  which  they 
find  to  be  fraudulent.  In  many  ways,  the  people  are 
thus  protected.  But  more  active  efforts  are  needed 
because  hundreds  of  millions  are  still  lost  through 
fraudulent  work. 

Conclusion. — What  has  been  said  in  this  chapter 
concerning  protection  of  the  people  attempts  merely 
to  outline  the  main  ways  in  which  the  power  of  all  is 
combined  to  aid  each.  There  are  many  other  ways 
which  could  be  maintained.  A  catalogue  might  read- 
ily be  made  of  ways  in  which  the  people  of  any  given 
place  protect  themselves.  The  needs  vary  from  place 
to  place,  but  everywhere  the  idea  is  the  same,  that 
all  that  can  be  done  should  be  done  to  see  that  every- 
body is  protected  and  gets  a  square  deal. 


36  OUR  AMERICA 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Mention  the  principal  thing  which  a  person  would 
have  to  do  to  protect  himself  if  he  had  to  depend  entirely 
upon  himself  to  protect  his  life,  liberty  and  property. 

What  does  your  community  do  to  protect  people  on 
the  highways  and  streets?  Get  copies  of  the  laws  or 
rules  relating  to  these  subjects. 

What  do  the  people  of  your  community  and  of  your 
state  do  to  protect  the  health  of  all  ?  Are  there  any  regu- 
lations about  the  drinking  cup?  Common  towel?  Spit- 
ting on  sidewalks?  Protection  of  food  supply?  Protec- 
tion of  milk  supply?  Are  these  strictly  enforced?  Get 
copies  of  laws  or  rules  relating  to  these  subjects. 

What  protection  is  given  against  fire? 

What  is  done  to  require  honest  and  correct  weights 
and  measures  in  your  community  and  state? 

Make  inquiry  of  railroad  men  and  make  a  list  of  the 
principal  safety  devices  which  protect  the  workers  and 
the  travelers. 

Make  inquiry  of  workers  in  some  factory  to  find  out 
what  safety  devices  are  used  to  protect  workers. 

In  what  way  do  the  weather  reports,  made  by  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  help  to  protect  people 
and  property? 

How  large  should  the  army  and  navy  be  to  protect  our 
interests  ? 

Why  is  it  that  laws  are  needed  to  protect  the  buyer  of 
foods  and  clothing  ?  Would  it  be  fair  to  let  the  buyer  look 
out  for  himself? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "blue  sky  companies"? 
Why  should  they  be  prohibited  ? 

Give  reasons  for  the  regulation  of  banking?    Insurance? 

If  you  were  robbed  to  whom  would  you  report  the  mat- 
ter if  you  were  in  a  city  at  the  time  ?  To  whom  would  you 
report  if  you  were  in  the  country? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  37 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  all  persons  engaged  in  making  or  selling 
articles  of  food  should  pass  a  health  examination  at  fre- 
quent intervals. 

Resolved  that  every  person  engaged  in  running  trains 
or  street-cars  should  pass  a  physical  examination. 

Resolved  that  vegetables  should  be  sold  by  weight  in- 
stead of  by  measure. 


WHERE   TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 

Chap.  XII  "The  Risks  of  Labor." 
Howe,  Modern  City  and  Some  of  Its  Problems. 

Chap.  XVII  "Police,  Fire  and  Health  Protection." 
Haskin,  American  Government. 

Chap.  IV  "The  Army." 

Chap.  V  "The  Navy." 

Chap.  X  "The  Department  of  Agriculture." 

Chap.  XI  "The  Weather  Bureau." 

Further  sources  of  information  are  found  in  later  chap- 
ters. 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Later  chapters  give  specific  references  from  which  to 
obtain  information  on  the  subjects  discussed. 


CHAPTER  IV 

% 

THE  NATURE  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Thus  far  we  have  been  taking  a  general  view  of 
the  way  men  work  and  live  in  society.  We  have 
seen  how,  by  the  division  of  labor,  men  produce  and 
exchange  goods,  thereby  satisfying  their  needs  and 
wants.  We  have  seen  how  the  people  build  and  pro- 
vide many  things  for  common  use.  We  have  seen, 
also,  the  necessity  for  making  rules  and  regulations 
which  protect  each  against  dangers  to  life,  liberty 
and  property. 

The  Basis  of  Government. — The  means  by  which 
these  things  are  accomplished  are  called  government. 
Not  being  able  by  themselves  to  do  all  of  the  things 
which  they  want  done,  the  people  set  up  a  body  of 
men  actually  to  do  the  work  for  them,  subject  of 
course  to  their  approval. 

Government  grows  out  of  the  necessities  of  every- 
day life.  In  its  simplest  elements,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand for  it  is  a  part  of  our  daily  lives.  We  often  for- 
get its  importance  because  we  are  familiar  with  its 
simple  workings.  We  could  not  get  along  without 
government  to  protect  us  and  to  provide  for  our  com- 
mon needs.  If  all  governments  were  abolished  to- 
morrow, the  people  would,  without  a  moment's  delay, 

38 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  39 

organize    such   form   of   government   as   their   needs 
would  require. 

There  is  a  wrong  idea  of  government  in  the  minds 
of  many  people  because  of  its  origin.  When  kings 
and  nobles  managed  affairs  and  people  had  to 
obey  what  was  ordered,  government  was  naturally 
considered  an  oppressive  thing.  It  was  forced  upon 
them  and  was  not  usually  for  their  benefit.  It  was 
a  means  by  which  the  rulers  got  money  and  property 
for  their  own  purposes.  But  democracy  has  made  the 
government  belong  to  the  people.  They  own  it, 
operate  it  and  can  do  what  they  wish  with  it.  They 
can  modify  it  or  even  abolish  it  and  reestablish  it 
as  they  please.  When  people  criticize  the  govern- 
ment, they  criticize  themselves.  Government  is  no 
longer  an  outside  power  to  oppress  them  but  their 
own  instrument  for  common  welfare. 

The  Three  Acts  of  Government. — Logically  and 
according  to  the  practise  of  hundreds  of  years,  gov- 
ernment consists  of  three  main  acts. 

Determining  what  shall  be  done. 

Doing  that  which  is  determined  shall  be  done. 

Deciding  disputed  points  which  arise. 

The  first  act  is  legislative;  the  second,  executive; 
and  the  third,  judicial. 

Representation. — If  it  were  possible  for  all  of  the 
people  to  come  together,  there  would  be  no  need  to 
separate -these  three  acts.  The  people  would  meet  to 
make  the  laws ;  they  would  meet  again  to  enforce 
their  laws  and  to  decide  disputed  points.  But,  of 


40  OUR  AMERICA 

course,  we  know  that  it  is  impossible  for  all  of  the 
people  to  leave  their  work  to  do  all  these  things.  In 
the  New  England  town,  the  people  meet  and  do 
many  things,  particularly  in  deciding  what  shall  be 
done;  but  nowhere  do  the  people  as  a  whole  meet 
to  do  very  much  of  their  common  work. 

By  means  of  the  ballot  all  of  the  people  in  many 
states  and  cities  decide  some  matters.  Under  the 
plan  called  the  initiative,  the  people  in  a  number  of 
states  and  cities  actually  make  a  few  laws  themselves; 
and  through  the  referendum  they  decide  whether 
certain  laws  passed  by  the  law-making  body  shall  go 
into  effect.  They  make,  however,  by  these  means 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  all  the  laws  needed. 
Except  in  small  communities  and  in  such  matters  as 
road  repair,  the  people  as  a  whole  do  not  execute 
laws ;  and  they  never  do  any  part  of  the  work  which 
we  call  judicial. 

The  Legislative  Act. — Since  the  people  can  not 
meet  to  do  their  common  work  by  themselves,  they 
must  have  a  body  of  men  selected  to  do  it  for  them. 

In  the  first  place  there  must  be  some  means  pro- 
vided to  determine  what  work  shall  be  done  or  what 
rules  or  regulations  shall  be  passed.  The  people 
must  act  through  some  agency  in  deciding,  for 
instance,  the  way  in  which  roads  shall  be  built.  They 
must  act  through  some  agency  in  deciding  what  rules 
and  regulations  shall  govern  the  use  of  the  roads. 
They  must,  also,  act  through  some  agency  in  decid- 
ing what  regulations  shall  be  made  to  keep  men 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  41 

working  in  harmony  and  prevent  them  from  inter- 
fering with  one  another's  rights.  The  people  select 
a  body  of  men  whom  they  call  representatives.  These 
representatives  determine  what  the  people  shall 
undertake  to  do.  This  is  the  legislative  department 
of  the  government.  It  is  merely  the  machinery  which 
the  people  provide  to  determine  their  will  as  to  what 
shall  be  done. 

The  Executive  Act. — Suppose  that  the  people  of 
a  community  should  decide  to  build  some  work  for 
common  use  and  should  decide  how  it  shall  be  done. 
The  next  step  is  actually  to  do  the  work.  Some  one 
must  be  given  the  task  of  building.  The  people 
might  all  work  together  in  building  it,  but  even  in 
that  case  some  one  must  have  charge. 

Suppose  further  that  a  community  has  made  rules 
for  individuals  to  follow.  Some  men  must  be  desig- 
nated to  see  that  the  rules  laid  down  are  obeyed.  A 
community  can  say,  "We  will  have  a  road,"  but  the 
mere  saying  does  not  build  it.  A  community  may 
declare  that  such  and  such  a  thing  shall  not  be  al- 
lowed, but  the  mere  declaration  does  not  prevent  it. 

The  representatives  of  the  people  therefore,  who 
decide  what  is  to  be  done,  also  provide  for  other 
representatives  to  do  the  work.  Usually  the  per- 
sons who  carry  out  a  plan  are  not  the  ones  who 
make  it.  One  body  determines  what  shall  be  done 
and  another  body  carries  out  the  work.  This  second 
body  of  representatives  who  actually  do  the  work  of 
the  community  is  called  the  executive  department — 


42  OUR  AMERICA 

the  body  that  executes  or  carries  out  what  the  legis- 
lative body  determines  to  do. 

The  Judicial  Act. — When  a  thing  is  put  into  opera- 
tion, difficulties  arise.  We  shall  assume  that  a  com- 
munity has  decided  to  build  a  road  to  connect  with 
other  roads.  Probably  it  would  have  to  be  built 
through  some  one's  property.  It  would  be  unfair  to 
take  one  man's  property  for  the  use  of  all,  unless 
each  contributed  alike.  The  person  whose  property 
is  taken  is  entitled  to  payment.  But  supposing  there 
is  a  dispute  over  the  amount.  The  man  has  a  right 
to  fair  treatment,  but  the  men  who  are  actually  doing 
the  work  might  be  unfair.  So,  if  a  dispute  arises,  a 
court  or  jury  hears  all  the  arguments  and  decides 
whether  the  man  has  had  justice. 

More  numerous  are  the  disputes  which  arise  over 
the  rules  and  regulations  requiring  certain  things  to 
be  done  or  prohibiting  other  things.  The  law  says, 
"No  person  shall  drive  an  automobile  more  than 
fifteen  miles  an  hour."  A  policeman  thinks  another 
is  exceeding  that  limit  and  has  him  arrested.  An 
impartial  body — a  court — or  a  jury  must  decide  from 
the  evidence  whether  the  person  arrested  was  driving 
more  than  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  That  is  the  only 
way  to  be  fair  to  all  concerned.  One  man  charges 
that  another  is  interfering  with  his  rights;  disputes 
and  quarrels  occur.  They  can  not  decide  and  some 
one  must  settle  the  question.  Disputes  range  all 
the  way  from  trivial  quarrels  over  damage  by  a  neigh- 
bor's hens  to  matters  involving  milKons  of  dollars  in 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  43 

which  one  person  claims  that  others  are  interfering 
with  his  just  rights. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  way  in  which  disputes 
arise  on  the  baseball  and  football  field.  The  rules 
are  laid  down  and  all  players  are  required  to  follow 
them.  Yet  every  moment,  differences  of  opinion 
arise.  "Was  the  runner  out  at  first?"  "Did  the 
pitcher  make  a  balk?"  "Did  the  baseman  interfere 
with  the  runner?"  It  is  hardly  likely  that  a  single 
game  could  be  played  through  without  the  aid  of  the 
umpire — the  court — who  decides.  The  umpire's 
duty  is  to  see  that  justice  is  done  and  that  all  players 
play  the  game  fairly,  according  to  the  rules. 

In  the  larger  game  of  making  a  living  and  in  pur- 
suing happiness,  an  umpire  is  needed  to  see  that  the 
game  is  played  fairly,  according  to  the  rules  laid 
down,  and  that  no  person  takes  advantage  of  another. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  judicial  department  to  see  that 
the  rights  of  each  are  guarded  against  unfair  methods 
and  to  show  what  the  law  means  in  each  new  situa- 
tion which  arises. 

Constitution  Making. — How  does  the  government 
in  this  country  get  its  form  ?  How  are  the  legislative, 
executive  and  judicial  departments  determined  and 
how  are  the  men  who  do  the  people's  work  in  these 
departments  kept  doing  what  they  ought  to  do  and 
kept  from  doing  what  they  ought  not  to  do? 

Let  us  take  a  simple  case.  Suppose  that  there 
were  one  thousand  people  in  a  community  apart  from 
all  others.  These  thousand  people  would  require 


44  OUR  AMERICA 

some  government  to  be  set  up  to  handle  their  com- 
mon affairs.  They  would  doubtless  meet  as  a  body 
to  decide  upon  a  plan.  This  plan  would  be  set  forth 
in  a  constitution  which  would  definitely  state  of  what 
the  government  should  consist,  what  powers  it 
should  have  and  would  declare  definitely  that  the 
officers  in  control  should  not  do  certain  things.  The 
thousand  people  would  then  go  back  to  their  own 
affairs  and  leave  the  persons  selected  as  their  repre- 
sentatives to  do  the  work,  according  to  their  wishes 
expressed  in  the  constitution.  Provision  would  be 
made  also  to  make  changes  in  the  constitution  when- 
ever needed. 

Constitutions  for  >a  large  group  of  people  compris- 
ing a  state  or  the  whole  nation  are  similar  in  char- 
acter. All  of  the  people  of  the  state  or  the  nation, 
through  representatives  selected  for  the  purpose, 
have  framed  constitutions  which  are  tlieir  supreme 
law.  The  constitution  decides  what  the  powers  of 
the  government  shall  be  and  determines  how  the 
legislative,  executive  and  judicial  work  shall  be  organ- 
ized and  how  the  work  shall  be  done  in  carrying 
on  the  common  affairs  of  the  people  of  the  state  or 
nation.  No  officer  may  do  anything  which  is  con- 
trary to  the  constitution.  Whatever  he  may  do 
which  is  contrary  has  no  effect  whatever  because  the 
constitution  is  the  supreme  law. 

Checking  the  Government. — The  people  have 
always  been  careful  not  to  give  too  much  power  to 
their  officials  because  they  have  feared  the  tyranny 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  45 

of  officers.  Their  fear  came  from  their  experience 
and  knowledge  of  oppressive  governments.  Govern- 
ment by  kings  and  nobles  over  whom  they  had  no 
control  caused  them  to  be  careful  in  setting  up  their 
own  government  to  see  that  no  one  should  have 
arbitrary  power  over  them.  One  of  the  first  things 
they  established  in  their  constitutions  was  a  bill  of 
rights  or  a  code  of  civil  liberty. 

Religious  and  Civil  Liberty. — Under  modern  con- 
stitutions, the  right  to  religious  freedom  is  guaran- 
teed. Every  man  is  given  the  right  to  worship  as  he 
pleases  and  any  attempt  to  make  a  law  or  to  enforce 
a  law  interfering  with  that  right  has  no  force.  A 
man's  life,  liberty  and  property  are  declared  to  be 
safe  from  interference  by  laws  or  officers.  They  could 
not  be  taken  away  except  by  due  process  of  law — • 
that  is,  they  could  not  be  taken  unfairly. 

False  Imprisonment. — No  one  can  be  put  into 
prison  without  cause.  -Any  person  charged  with 
crime  has  a  right  to  have  his  case  heard  speedily  and 
to  have  counsel  and  witnesses  and  also  to  be  let  out 
on  bail.  Arbitrary  governments  often  threw  men 
into  prison  and  kept  them  there  on  false  pretenses. 
Our  officials  have  no  such  powers  because  the  people 
have  provided  for  their  own  protection  through  the 
Constitution. 

Free  Speech. — Every  person  is  guaranteed  the 
right  to  free  speech  but,  of  course,  he  is  responsible 
for  false  statements  in  speech  or  writing.  This  is 
considered  one  of  the  most  precious  civil  rights  be- 


46  OUR  AMERICA 

cause  it  enables  us  fearlessly  to  attack  every 
abuse. 

Freedom  of  Assemblage.— Likewise  the  people's 
right  to  assemble  peaceably  and  to  express  them- 
selves on  their  common  affairs  is  a  precious  right 
which  is  guaranteed.  In  despotic  countries,  the 
gathering  of  people  for  such  purposes  is  forbidden 
so  that  the  people  have  no  chance  to  consult  for  their 
common  good.  In  this  country,  we  believe  that  the 
best  way  to  handle  difficult  questions  is  to  let  the 
people  have  the  fullest  discussion  of  them.  There  is 
a  limit,  however,  which  we  do  not  permit  people  to 
exceed.  Meetings  which  urge  violence  are  not  gen- 
erally tolerated. 

Equal  Rights. — Equal  rights  to  all  being  the  key- 
note of  democracy,  it  is  essential  that  no  special 
privileges  be  granted  to  any  one.  All  must  be  treated 
alike  and  any  right  which  is  granted  to  one  person 
must  be  equally  open  to  all.  No  other  system  would 
be  tolerable  and  it  is  the  constant  purpose  of  all  true 
lovers  of  democratic  government  to  try  to  live  up  to 
this  ideal. 

Where  to  Find  Our  Safeguards* — These  are  some 
of  the  more  important  matters  in  which  the  people 
protect  themselves  against  the  unfairness  of  officers 
who  may  be  in  power.  For  further  facts  read  the  bill 
of  rights  in  your 'own  state  constitution  which  pro- 
tects against  any  state,  county,  city  or  township 
officers ;  and  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  federal 
Constitution  which  protect  the  people  against  federal 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  47 

officers;  and  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
amendments  to  the  federal  Constitution  which  pro- 
tect against  any  national,  state  or  local  officers,  who 
may  exceed  their  powers. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   INVESTIGATION 

What  does  the  Declaration  of  Independence  say  on  the 
nature  of  government?  Where  does  the  just  power  of 
government  come  from? 

Show  how  government  arises  from  actual  needs. 

Name  the  principal  things  which  government  does 
with  which  you  are  familiar. 

Why  is  it  impossible  for  the  people  by  themselves  actu- 
ally to  do  the  work  of  governing? 

What  parts  of  the  common  work  can  the  people  readily 
do? 

What  are  the  purposes  of  government  set  out  in  the 
preamble  of  the  United  States  Constitution?  Of  your 
state  constitution? 

Discuss  the  statement  that  all  people  should  have  equal 
rights  and  that  no  one  should  have  special  privileges. 

Show  the  importance  to  the  people  of  their  right  to  assem- 
ble to  discuss  their  common  affairs. 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  safeguards  against  the  tyr- 
ranny  of  officers  ? 

Read  the  bill  of  rights  in  your  state  constitution.  Read 
the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  United  States  Constitution. 
Read  also  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amend- 
ments to  the  United  States  Constitution. 

Why  do  we  need  a  constitution  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "representative"?       t 

Would  it  be  possible  for  the  people  by  means  of  the 
ballot  to  decide  what  should  be  done  in  all  cases?  Give 
reasons. 


48  OUR  AMERICA 


QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  people  criticize  themselves  when  they 
criticize  their  government. 

Resolved  that  the  people  should  do  more  of  their  work 
themselves  and  leave  less  to  their  representative. 


WHERE   TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Declaration  of  Independence,  Appendix,  p.  359. 

The  state  constitution  of  your  state   (preamble  and  bill 

of  rights). 
United   States   Constitution    (preamble  and  first  fifteen 

amendments). 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State    University,    Head    of   Department  of   Political 
Science,  Economics  or  Sociology. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PEOPLE  AND  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

There  were  about  ninety-two  million  people  in  the 
United  States  in  1910,  when  they  were  counted  by 
the  United  States  Census  Bureau.  The  number  had 
increased  to  one  hundred  million  in  1915  and  now 
increases  more  than  two  million  a  year. 

Facts  About  the  People  of  the  United  States.— The 
ninety-two  million  people  were  distributed  over  an 
area  of  land  of  two  million  nine  hundred  seventy-three 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety  square  miles,  or  an 
average  of  about  thirty-one  persons  to  the  square 
mile.  The  distribution  was  very  uneven,  ranging 
from  five  hundred  and  eight  persons  to  the  square 
mile  in  Rhode  Island  to  less  than  one  person  per 
square  mile  in  Nevada.  That  is,  in  Rhode  Island 
there  was  one  person  for  a  little  more  than  each  acre 
of  ground  wfyile  in  Nevada  there  were  more  than 
six  hundred  and  forty  acres  for  each  person.  There 
were  thousands  living  in  single  blocks  in  the  great 
cities  while  a  few  persons  occupied  thousands  of 
acres  in  the  country. 

Rural  and  City  Population. — Another  comparison 
is  important.  There  were  in  1910,  forty-nine  million 

49 


50  OUR  AMERICA 

three  hundred  forty-eight  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eighty-three  people  living  in  rural  communities 
and  forty-two  million  six  hundred  twenty-three  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  eighty-three  people  living  in 
cities  and  towns  of  over  two  thousand  five  hundred. 
Forty-six  and  three-tenths  per  cent,  of  all  the  people 
lived  in  cities  and  larger  towns.  The  number  in  cities 
is  on  the  rapid  increase.  Forty  and  five-tenths  per 
cent,  lived  in  cities  and  towns  in  1900  and  only  thirty- 
six  and  one  per  cent,  in  1890. 

Occupations. — In  1910,  thirty-eight  million  of  these 
people  were  engaged  in  some  profitable  employment, 
and  twenty  million  more  were  engaged  in  home-mak- 
ing. At  that  time  there  were  more  than  nine  thou- 
sand different  occupations  in  which  the  people  earned 
their  living. 

Of  the  thirty-eight  million  people  engaged  in  em- 
ployment in  1910,  twelve  million  six  hundred  fifty- 
nine  thousand  were  engaged  in  farming,  forestry  and 
animal  industry;  nearly  one  million  in  mining;  ten 
million  six  hundred  fifty-eight  thousand  in  manufac- 
turing and  mechanical  work;  two  million  six  hundred 
thirty-seven  thousand  in  railroad  and  other  transpor- 
tation; three  million  six  hundred  fourteen  thousand 
in  trade ;  one  million  six  hundred  sixty-three  thousand 
in  professional  service;  three  million  seven  hundred 
seventy-two  thousand  in  domestic  and  personal  serv- 
ice ;  one  million  seven  hundred  thirty-seven  thousand 
engaged  in  clerical  occupations,  such  as  bookkeepers 
and  stenographers. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  51 

Foreign  Immigrants. — Thirteen  million  five  hun- 
dred fifteen  thousand  or  fourteen  and  seven-tenths 
per  cent,  of  our  people  were  born  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try. These  people  came  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
but  principally  from  European  countries.  Thirty- 
three  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Rhode  Island  was 
foreign  born,  thirty-one  and  five-tenths  per  cent,  of 
Massachusetts  and  thirty  per  cent,  of  New  York  while 
only  three-tenths  per  cent,  were  foreign  born  in  North 
Carolina  and  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  in  Mississippi. 

Illiterates. — There  were  in  1910  more  than  five 
million  five  hundred  thousand  persons  over  ten  years 
of  age  who  could  not  read  and  write  and  there  were 
two  million  two  hundred  seventy-three  thousand  six 
hundred  and  three  men  of  voting  age  who  could  not 
read  and  write.  Seven  and  seven-tenths  per  cent,  of 
all  the' people  were  thus  illiterate  and  eight  and  four- 
tenths  per  cent,  of  all  the  voters  could  not  read  nor 
write. 

The  Importance  of  These  Facts. — The  statements 
given  above  show  the  main  facts  about  our  people 
and  their  work.  It  is  with  people  and  what  they  do 
that  we  are  concerned  in  our  study  of  government. 
Our  one  hundred  million  inhabitants  must  work  to- 
gether in  harmony  in  providing  for  their  common 
needs.  Rules  must  be  made  so  that  each  may  live 
without  unfair  interference  from  others  and  so  that 
no  single  person  may  interfere  unfairly  with  the  rights 
of  all. 

The  people  in  this  country  are  the  ones  who  decide 


52  OUR  AMERICA 

what  things  shall  be  done  for  the  benefit  of  them- 
selves and  what  rules  shall  be  made  for  the  conduct 
of  all. 

Need  of  Different  Forms  of  Government. — The 
first  thing  which  the  facts  show  is  that  the  same 
rules  will  not  do  for  all  parts  of  the  country.  The 
same  rules  will  not  do  for  Rhode  Island  where  there 
are  five  hundred  and  eight  persons  to  the  square 
mile  and  ninety-six  and  six-tenths  per  cent,  live  in 
cities  and  towns,  and  for  Nevada  where  there  is  less 
than  one  person  to  the  square  mile  and  only  sixteen 
and  three  tenths  per  cent,  live  in  cities  and  towns. 
The  same  rules  will  not  do  for  the  crowded  city 
and  the  rural  districts.  The  same  rules  will  not  do 
for  some  of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  country  where 
nearly  all  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  trans- 
portation and  for  some  of  the  western  parts  where 
the  great  majority  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The 
same  rules  will  not  do  either  for  a  state  where  every- 
body is  educated  and  for  a  state  where  there  are  great 
numbers  of  illiterates.  Likewise,  there  must  be  a 
difference  in  places  where  there  are  large  numbers  of 
persons  born  in  a  foreign  country  and  in  places  where 
the  people  are  all  native  born  and  have  the  same  hab- 
its and  ideals. 

So  that,  if  we  were  to  start  out  to-day  to  make  a 
plan  of  government  to  fit  our  people,  we  would 
doubtless  divide  the  country  up  into  parts  and  we 
would  say  to  each  part,  "You  look  after  your  own 
problems  to  suit  yourself,  altogether  we  will  look 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  53 

after  those  things  which  concern  all  of  us."  Then, 
each  part  or  state  would  do  whatever  it  deemed  best 
for  itself;  and  all  of  the  parts  acting  together  through 
the  nation  would  do  those  things  which  concern  all 
of  the  people  of  all  of  the  states. 

Division  of  Work  Between  States  and  Nation. — 
That  is  the  way  things  are  done  but  it  did  not  come 
about  by  a  single  process.  It  came  about  gradually 
as  a  result  of  conditions.  The  thirteen  colonies  after 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776  were 
separate  and  distinct  states.  Each  took  care  of  its 
own  affairs  but  all  tried  to  work  together  to  win 
independence  under  an  agreement  called  the  Articles 
of  Confederation.  After  the  war,  the  states  found 
that  this  agreement  did  not  work  because  each  state 
could  do  as  it  pleased  without  regard  to  the 
other  states,  and  the  people  organized  the  fed- 
eral government  in  1787  and  gave  it  certain  exclu- 
sive powers  leaving  all  other  powers  for  the  states. 
Thus,  those  matters  which  concerned  all  the  states 
were  given  to  the  federal  government  while  those 
which  were  local  were  left  to  the  states.  The  divi- 
sion of  powers  was  made  according  to  the  needs  of 
that  time.  Rather  extensive  powers  for  that  time 
were  given  to  the  nation  because  we  had  just  won 
independence  and  were  subject  to  foreign  dangers; 
and  we  needed  the  power  of  all  to  protect  us. 

Powers  of  the  Nation. — Naturally  the  first  matter 
of  concern  was  protection  against  foreign  countries. 
The  states  could  not  protect  themselves  alone,  so  the 


54  OUR  AMERICA 

federal  government  was  given  control  of  the  army 
and  navy.  All  matters  relating  to  foreign  countries 
and  to  war  or  preparation  for  war  were  given  to  the 
federal  government  acting  for  all  of  the  people  of  all 
of  the  states. 

The  second  matter  of  importance  was  that  of 
trade.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  exchange 
of  goods  is  a  necessity.  It  is  more  so  now  than 
in  1787;  but  at  that  time  the  need  for  a  free  exchange 
of  goods  among  the  states  was  so  great  as  to  bring 
about  a  demand  for  the  federal  Constitution.  Seeing 
the  absurdity  of  thirteen  states  setting  up  different 
requirements  and  interfering  with  trade,  the  people 
of  all  the  states  put  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  the 
United  States  and  gave  power  to  the  nation  to  regu- 
late commerce  between  the  states.  They  went 
further  and  provided  for  aids  to  trade  such  as  coin- 
ing money,  fixing  standards  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  establishing  post-offices  and  post  roads.  The 
object  of  these  was  to  make  commerce  easier.  It  was 
evident  to  them  as  to  us  that  money  must  be  uniform 
so  that  it  would  pass  in  any  state  and  that  the  stand- 
ards by  which  a  bushel  of  grain  or  a  pound  of  meat 
were  measured  should  be  the  same  in  every  state. 

The  power  was  given,  of  course,  to  do  all  things 
necessary  to  provide  the  facilities  for  doing  the  work 
of  the  United  States,  such  as  building  government 
buildings,  dredging  harbors  and  developing  or  dispos- 
ing of  public  lands.  A  few  other  powers  were  given, 
a1«o,  such  as  fixing  the  rule  for  naturalizing  foreign- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  55 

crs  who  wish  to  become  citizens  of  this  country; 
granting  patents  and  trade-marks;  issuing  of  copy- 
rights; and  making  a  uniform  method  of  settling 
bankruptcies. 

The  four  important  things  which  the  nation  could 
do  were  therefore: 

To  attend  to  all  dealings  with  foreign  countries. 

To  provide  protection  against  foreign  nations. 

To  regulate  trade  among  the  states. 

To  build  works  for  common  needs. 

Powers  of  the  States. — The  people  merely  said 
that  the  federal  government  should  do  a  part  of  the 
things  they  wanted  done  and  that  the  states  should 
do  the  rest.  They  tried  to  divide  the  powers  in  such 
a  way  that  those  things  which  concern  the'  people 
of  all  of  the  states  should  be  done  by  the  federal 
government,  and  those  which  concerned  a  single  state 
should  be  done  by  that  state.  Of  course,  it  was  the 
state's  duty  to  protect  its  citizens  within  its  borders ; 
to  promote  trade  within  the  state;  and  to  build  the 
necessary  works  for  common  use  of  its  own  citizens. 
In  addition,  all  matters  relating  to  education,  public 
highways,  caring  for  the  poor  and  unfortunate,  trans- 
ferring property,  looking  after  the  descent  of  prop- 
erty from  a  person  to  his  heirs,  draining  swamps, 
etc.,  were  assigned  to  the  state. 

Division  of  Work  Between  States  and  Local  Com- 
munities.— But  the  state  could  not  by  itself  do  all  of 
the  things  required  to  be  done.  The  same  reasons 
which  made  it  necessary  that  each  state  look  after 


56  OUR  AMERICA 

its  own  local  problems,  made  it  desirable  that  each 
locality  look  after  the  things  which  concern  it.  The 
people  of  a  state  therefore  divide  the  territory  into 
counties  and  the  counties  into  townships  and  often 
the  townships  into  smaller  districts.  They  assign  to 
each,  certain  work  which  is  local.  The  state  recog- 
nizes peculiar  problems  such  as  those  which  a  city  or 
town  brings.  It  makes  a  separate  government  for 
the  cities  and  towns  so  that  they  can  do  those 
things  which  concern  them.  Further  than  that,  there 
are  problems  such  as  the  problem  of  drainage.  This 
question  may  concern  a  given  territory  composed  of 
several  counties  or  townships.  Certain  needs  arise 
and  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  these  needs,  a  separate 
organization  is  provided.  Likewise  a  separate  ar- 
rangement is  sometimes  made  to  prevent  floods,  es- 
tablish irrigation  works,  prevent  fires,  or  furnish  wa- 
ter or  other  facilities  in  the  district  affected. 

A  Complex  System. — Thus  we  see  that  the  busi- 
ness of  providing  for  the  common  needs  of  one  hun- 
dred million  people  in  this  country  and  regulating 
their  relations  with  one  another  requires  an  exten- 
sive organization.  There  are  "wheels  within  wheels," 
each  one  performing  its  function  and  all  working 
for  the  fullest  freedom  and  protection  of  each  indi- 
vidual. 

A  Double-Headed  Country. — The  peculiar  feature 
about  this  country  is  the  double  management  at  the 
*op.  In  most  countries  the  national  government  is 
supreme  and  states  are  subject  to  it  the  same  as  cities, 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  57 

counties  and  townships  are  subject  to  the  state  in 
this  country.  The  nation  exercises  what  power  it 
pleases  and  gives  the  states,  counties,  townships  or 
whatever  they  may  be  called  such  powers  as  it  sees 
fit.  In  this  country,  as  we  have  seen,  there  are  two 
main  heads.  The  nation  exercises  only  the  powers 
granted  to  it.  The  nation  has  no  control  over  the 
states  in  their  work  and  the  states  have  no  control 
over  the  nation  in  its  work.  The  state  does,  how- 
ever, have  entire  control  over  the  counties,  town- 
ships, cities,  towns  and  all  other  divisions  of  the 
state.  It  assigns  them  their  powers,  fixes  their 
boundaries  and  could  abolish  them.  These  divisions 
are  merely  the- agents  of  the  state;  to  do  the  things 
which  the  state  or  the  particular  locality  wants  done. 
So  the  state  makes  general  regulations  and  leaves 
the  counties,  townships,  cities  and  towns  to  carry 
out  these  rules. 

In  practise,  of  course,  the  states  leave  the  local 
governments  much  freedom.  In  the  case  of  cities, 
particularly,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  let  the  city 
alone  in  matters  which  concern  itself  solely.  The 
state  controls  affairs  only  when  more  than  the  people 
of  the  city  are  concerned.  Home  rule  is  the  term 
applied  to  the  movement  to  let  local  governments 
attend  to  their  own  affairs. 

Importance  of  Knowing  the  Form  of  Government. 
— It  is  important  to  study  carefully  what  powers  each 
one  of  our  governments — local,  state  and  national — 
exercises  so  that  we  may  know  where  to  appeal  to  get 


58  QUR  AMERICA 

things  done  and  where  to  put  the  blame  when  things 
are  not  done  or  are  done  badly.  We  need  to  know 
what  powers  the  officials  in  each  of  our  governments 
have.  We  can  go,  then,  direct  to  the  right  official 
when  we  want  a  thing  done.  The  officials  at  Wash- 
ington get  thousands  of  letters  concerning  things 
over  which  the  federal  government  has  no  control ; 
and  the  state  officials  likewise  have  thousands  of  re- 
quests concerning  things  which  are  attended  to  at 
Washington.  Often  candidates  for  office  in  states 
and  cities  promise  all  sorts  of  things  which  they 
could  not  perform  if  elected  because  they  are  not 
functions  of  the  states  or  cities.  If  people  really 
knew  the  power  which  the  different  officers  possess, 
silly  promises  of  candidates  on  the  stump  would  be 
ridiculed. 

When  we  know  the  facts  about  the  way  our  gov- 
ernments are  constructed,  we  shall  make,  from  time 
to  time,  sensible  changes  of  powers  of  the  different 
governments,  to  meet  new  conditions.  Thus,  if  the 
state  exercises  power  over  the  people  of  a  city  and 
through  that  power  interferes  with  the  good  govern- 
ment of  the  city,  the  power  should  be  transferred 
from  the  state  to  the  city.  If  the  city  is  trying  to  do 
things  which  it  can  not  do  well,  the  state  should  be 
called  to  help.  If  the  nation  can  do  things  which  on 
the  part  of  forty-eight  states  are  not  well  done,  then 
the  change  ought  to  give  extra  power  to  the  nation. 
Likewise  if  the  nation  is  given  power  to  do  a  thing 
which  the  states  could  do  for  themselves  with  greater 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  59 

effect,  then  the  power  should  be  given  to  the 
states. 

Value  of  Local  Government. — The  people,  of  a 
locality  ought  to  do  everything  which  they  can  do. 
It  stimulates  the  people  of  a  city  to  make  by  their 
own  efforts  a  clean  city,  to  develop  the  very  best 
educational  system,  to  build  playgrounds,  good  streets 
and  pavements,  and  to  do  all  work  efficiently.  This 
has  the  same  effect  as  the  accomplishment  of  tasks  by 
children.  If  a  child  does  a  thing  by  himself  he  finds 
pleasure  in  it,  but  if  some  one  does  his  tasks  for  him, 
he  becomes  lazy  and  uninterested. 

Examples  of  a  Proper  Division  of  Work  Among 
Locality,  State  and  Nation. — Matters  which  are  too 
big  for  a  locality  to  handle  should  be  given  to  the 
state,  and  if  too  big  for  the  state  should  be  handled 
by  the  nation.  Take  the  health  problem  as  an 
example.  Of  course,  each  locality  should  see"  that 
everything  that  might  be  dangerous  to  health  is  pre- 
vented. But  a  single  locality  can  not  be  safe  from 
disease  by  its  own  efforts.  Diseases  spread  from 
place  to  place.  One  city  may  dump  its  sewage  in  a 
stream  which  carries  disease  to  another  city.  Dis- 
ease unchecked  in  one  city  becomes  dangerous  to  the 
people  in  many  places.  The  state  must  step  in  to 
protect  all  the  people.  But  even  the  states  are  at 
the  mercy  of  other  states  if  they  neglect  to  prevent 
disease.  Diseases  travel  from  state  to  state.  Rivers 
bearing  pollution  and  disease  run  from  state  to  state. 
A  state  can  not  regulate  the  condition,  for  it  is  out- 


60  OUR  AMERICA 

side  its  boundaries.  Nothing  but  the  nation  can 
effectively  prevent  such  conditions.  Here,  then,  we 
have  an  illustration  of  the  sphere  of  each  govern- 
ment and  of  the  way  in  which  all  may  cooperate  to 
the  benefit  and  protection  of  the  people. 

So,  also,  in  regulating  railroads.  The  city  is  help- 
less except  in  very  minor  matters.  The  state  is  more 
powerful  but  only  so  far  as  it  may  regulate  railroads 
entirely  within  its  borders.  The  nation  is  the  only 
power  which  extends  over  the  entire  field  occupied 
by  the  railroads.  So  the  city  does  what  it  can  to 
make  crossings  safe  in  its  limits;  the  state  regulates 
those  railroads  which  are  entirely  in  the  state;  and 
the  nation  regulates  those  railroads  which  extend 
from  state  to  state. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  matter  of  regulating  street 
traffic  is  wholly  a  city  matter  in  which  the  state  is 
not  concerned.  The  city  should  be  left  entirely  free 
therefore  to  regulate  street  traffic.  Many  other  ques- 
tions are  strictly  local  and  the  state  should  not  have 
a  voice  in  them. 

Likewise,  the  matter  of  charities  is  one  which  the 
states  can  handle  by  themselves  without  interference 
by  the  nation.  They  ought  to  do  so,  therefore,  on 
the  theory  that  each  government  should  do  those 
things  which  it  can  do  best.  The  more  the  city  can 
do,  the  better;  and  the  more  the  state  can  do,  the 
better.  There  will  in  any  event  be  enough  of  very 
important  work  left  for  the  nation  to  do. 

Constitutions. — The  government  of  this  nation  is 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  61 

organized  under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
That  Constitution  was  adopted  in  1787  and  has  had 
seventeen  amendments.  It  is  the  supreme  law  of  the 
country  on  the  matters  with  which  it  deals.  No  law 
may  be  passed  or  act  done  by  the  nation,  state  or  city 
contrary  to  its  provisions. 

Each  state  has  its  own  constitution  which  is  the  su- 
preme law  of  the  state  in  all  matters  where  it  does 
not  conflict  with  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
State  constitutions  have  been  more  frequently  revised 
and  changed  than  the  national  Constitution  and 
changes  now  take  place  frequently.  These  constitu- 
tions are  framed  by  the  people  of  the  state  in  a  con- 
vention of  representatives  whom  the  people  elect  for 
that  purpose  and  are  voted  upon  by  the  people.  No 
law  may  be  passed  by  the  legislature  or  act  done  by 
state  or  local  officials  contrary  to  the  state  constitu- 
tions. 

Cities  generally  have  a  charter  which  outlines  the 
city  government  and  fixes  its  powers.  In  some  states 
this  charter  is  the  work  of  the  state  legislature  and  in 
others  it  is  framed  and  adopted  by  the  people  of  the 
city.  The  city  council  or  commission  or  city  officials 
may  not  do  any  act  which  is  in  conflict  with  the  char- 
ter. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Why  are  the  facts  relating  to  the  people  and  their  work 
important  in  the  discussion  of  government? 

Point  out  the  main  reasons  why  different  laws  are 
needed  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


62  OUR  AMERICA 

What  would  be  the  effects  of  leaving  the  regulation 
of  trade  passing  from  state  to  state  to  each  of  the  forty- 
eight  states? 

What  is  the  principal  advantage  of  leaving  the  ques- 
tion of  defense  against  foreign  countries  to  the  national 
government? 

Would  it  be  possible  for  the  state  or  the  nation  to  reg- 
ulate the  traffic  in  a  city? 

What  is  the  best  test  to  determine  whether  it  is  better 
to  have  a  thing  done  by  the  local  government  or  by  ihe 
state?  By  the  state  or  by  the  nation? 

What  is  the  method  of  making  changes  in  or  amending 
the  United  States  Constitution?  Your  state  constitution? 
Why  is  it  important  to  provide  for  changes  or  amendments  ? 

Mention  all  of  the  different  things  which  your  city,  town- 
ship or  county  can  do  well  by  itself  without  help  from  the 
state  or  nation. 

What  are  the  advantages  to  us  of  attending  to  our  own 
local  affairs? 

Read  section  8  of  Article  I  of  the  United  States  Consti- 
tution which  shows  what  powers  the  United  States  exer- 
cises through  Congress. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  building  and  care  of  highways 
should  be  left  to  the  local  government,  the  township  or 
the  county. 

Resolved  that  the  nation  should  take  steps  to  help 
remove  illiteracy,  although  education  is  a  matter  left  to 
the  states  and  local  governments. 


WHERE  TO  FIND  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

United  States  Constitution,  Appendix,  p.  364,  Article  1 

on  the  powers  of  Congress. 
Abstract  of  the  United  States  Census  of  1910.     (May 

be  obtained  free  from  the  United  States  Census  Bu- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  63 

reau,  Washington,   D.   C.     Contains   facts  about  the 

people. 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Vol.  1,  Chap.  XXVII  "The  Federal  System." 

Chap.  XXVIII  "Working  Relations  of  the  National 
and  State  Governments." 

Chap.  XXIX  "Criticism  of  the  Federal  System." 

Chap.  XXI  "Merits  of  the  Federal  System." 
Howe,  Modern  City  and  Some  of  Its  Problems. 

Chap.  VI  "The  City  and  the  State." 

Chap.  VII  "Municipal  Home  Rule." 

Chap.  VIII  "The  City  Charter." 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Census  Bureau  for  specific  information  on  popu- 
lation. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Immigration  and  Naturalization  for 
information  regarding  immigration  and  citizenship. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ROADS  AND  STREETS 

In  many  respects  roads  and  streets  are  the  most 
important  matters  with  which  the  people  have  to 
deal.  Civilized  life  is  not  possible  without  means  of 
travel  and  transportation.  Every  civilized  nation 
has  found  this  to  be  so  and  almost  from  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  record,  roads  have  been  built 
for  the  common  benefit.  Usually  in  the  earlier  times 
roads  were  built  for  military  purposes.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  means  of  sending  troops  quickly  to  any 
part  of  the  country  be  provided.  Rome  learned  that 
and  her  strength  was  largely  due  to  her  splendid 
system  of  roads  over  which  she  could  send  her 
legions  to  distant  parts  of  her  domain.  Modern  nations 
have  learned  the  lesson  too,  and  a  network  of  roads 
and  railroads  is  one  of  the  chief  defenses  of  nations. 
The  United  States  in  the  early  days  saw  the  neces- 
sity of  binding  the  country  together  and  spent  mil- 
lions in  building  the  National  Road  from  Baltimore 
to  the  Mississippi. 

Modern  Roads  Are  for  Commerce. — Modern  roads, 
in  this  country  at  least,  are  not  built  for  military 
purposes.  They  are  laid  out  to  enable  people  to  travel 
for  profit  or  pleasure  and  make  possible  the  transpor- 

64 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  65 

tation  and  exhange  of  goods.  They  have  grown  up  to 
meet  the  immediate  need  without  a  general  plan. 
From  mere  trails  they  have  developed  into  roads.  In 
the  older  sections  of  the  country,  the  laying  out  of 
roads  is  about  completed  and  the  present  problem  is 
to  rebuild  and  maintain  them  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  changing  modern  traffic. 

Development  of  Roads. — The  history  of  road  de- 
velopment in  a  community  follows  a  uniform  course. 
First,  there  is  need  of  a  trail  to  penetrate  the  new 
country.  As  people  begin  to  use  this  trail,  demands 
for  improvement  come.  The  most  dangerous  parts 
are  made  safe.  When  traffic  increases,  constant  re- 
pair is  needed.  When  heavy  vehicles  begin  to  be 
used,  the  roads  must  have  a  firmer  foundation  and 
need  greater  care.  Automobiles  make  necessary  a 
firmer  surface  as  well  as  foundation.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  road  into  a  city  street  makes  necessary 
a  solid  pavement  to  stand  the  heavy  and  constant 
traffic.  Brick,  asphalt,  concrete,  stone  and  block 
pavement  are  needed  in  cities. 

The  principle  illustrated  by  the  history  of  road 
development  is  that  the  roads  should  be  built  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  traffic.  They  should  be  able  to 
stand  the  kind  of  traffic  that  passes  over  them.  In 
building  or  improving  a  road,  the  first  matter  to  de- 
termine is  the  amount  and  kind  of  traffic  which  will 
pass  over  it.  A  traffic  census  will  show  the  kind  and 
extent  of  the  improvement  which  it  is  wise  to  make. 

Kinds  of  Roads. — To  meet  the  various  demands  of 


66  OUR  AMERICA 

traffic  many  different  kinds  of  roads  have  developed : 
paths  and  trails  in  remote  sections,  dirt  roads, 
sand  clay  roads,  gravel  roads,  broken  stone  or 
macadam  roads,  brick  roads,  concrete  roads,  various 
other  forms  of  hard-surfaced  roads  such  as  asphalt, 
creosoted  wood  block,  stone  block  and  various  pat- 
ented forms  of  road. 

-  Paths  and  Trails. — Of  paths  and  trails  we  need  not 
be  here  concerned.  They  are  in  remote  sections  and 
little  used.  They  do  not  help  or  hinder  travel  and 
transportation  to  any  great  extent. 

Dirt  Roads. — Dirt  roads  are  of  great  importance 
to  all  the  people.  There  were  in  1909,  two  million 
two  hundred  and  ten  thousand  miles  of  roads  in  the 
United  States  of  which  more  than  two  million  miles 
were  dirt  roads.  It  should  not  be  assumed,  how- 
ever, that  their  importance  is  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  miles.  Probably  more  traffic  passes  over 
the  other  two  hundred  and  ten  thousand  miles  of 
roads  than  over  the  entire  two  million  miles  of  dirt 
roads.  It  has  been  estimated  that  nine-tenths  of  the 
traffic  of  the  country  passes  over  one-tenth  of  the 
roads.  If  this  is  true,  then  the  dirt  roads  carry  only 
one-tenth  as  much  as  the  other  roads. 

To  the  rural  dweller,  however,  the  dirt  roads  are 
most  important.  They  are  his  roads  to  market  and 
he  must  do  his  pleasure  driving  upon  them.  The 
traffic  possible  over  most  of  these  roads  will  hardly 
ever  justify  expensive  improvements  and  it  is  im- 
portant to  study  the  problems  of  construction  and 


A  Bad  Road 


Same  Road  Improved. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  67 

maintenance  of  these  roads  so  that  they  may  be  rea- 
sonably satisfactory.  Given  proper  grade  lines,  sur- 
face drainage,  culvert  and  sub-drainage  and  the  dirt 
road  can  be  kept  in  fair  condition  for  most  of  the 
year. 

Sand  Clay  Roads. — The  next  form  of  road  to  be 
discussed  is  the  sand  clay  road,  so  named  because  it 
is  made  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  in  the  right 
proportions  so  that  it  is  neither  sandy  nor  sticky. 
This  kind  of  road  is  built  by  putting  sand  and  clay 
on  the  roads  and  then  thoroughly  mixing  these  sub- 
stances with  a  disk  harrow.  The  road  is  then  rolled 
with  a  heavy  road  roller  and  a  hard  surface  is  formed. 
There  are  natural  mixtures  of  sand  and  clay  which 
form  natural  sand  clay  roads.  If  the  right  kind  of 
sand  and  clay  are  near  at  hand,  sand  clay  roads  can 
be  constructed  very  cheaply.  In  grade,  drainage  and 
foundation,  they  should  follow  the  principles  which 
are  followed  in  building  dirt  roads.  The  grade 
should  not  exceed  five  per  cent,  which  means  a  rise 
of  five  feet  in  one  hundred  feet;  the  foundation  should 
be  well  drained  so  as  to  give  a  firm  base;  and  the  sur- 
face should  be  drained  to  prevent  damage  by  stand- 
ing surface  water.  Along  such  roads  there  should 
be  open  spaces  so  that  plenty  of  sunshine  may  be  had 
to  keep  the  road  dry.  A  good  sand  clay  road  costs 
from  two  hundred  dollars  to  one  thousand  two  hun- 
dred dollars  a  mile  depending  upon  the  nearness  of 
materials. 

Gravel  Roads. — The  gravel  road  is  constructed  by 


68  OUR  AMERICA 

preparing  the  grade  and  then  placing  a  suitable 
amount  of  gravel,  usually  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
deep  in  the  center.  The  gravel  is  then  rolled  with  a 
heavy  roller  until  it  is  crushed  close  together.  Some- 
times the  gravel  is  screened  and  the  coarser  gravel 
put  on  the  bottom.  Good  road-building  gravel  should 
be  hard,  tough  and  have  cementing  or  binding  power. 
To  make  a  good  gravel  road,  the  particles  must 
cement  together.  This  kind  of  road  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  sand  clay  roads  and  the  importance  of 
care  in  building  and  repairing  is  greater.  Failures 
are  commonly  due  to  the  following  main  causes,  ac- 
cording to  Logan  W.  Page  in  his  book,  Roads,  Paths  and 
Bridges : 

Poor  material. 

Spreading  the  gravel  in  dry  weather;  dumping  it 
in  heaps  and  leaving  it  for  traffic  to  compact. 

Placing  the  gravel  on  surfaces  filled  with  ruts  and 
holes. 

Insecure  or  poorly  drained  foundation. 

Improper  construction  of  ditches  or  culverts. 

Making  the  road  so  narrow  that  wagons  will  track, 
thereby  forming  deep  ruts. 

Failure  to  fill  ruts  and  holes  with  gravel. 

Macadam  Road. — The  macadam  road  is  the  next 
most  expensive  and  durable  road.  It  is  usually 
known  as  a  broken  stone  road  because  its  main  parts 
are  of  stone  broken  and  crushed  for  the  purpose.  The 
broken  stone  is  placed  upon  a  foundation  properly 
graded  and  drained  and  is  rolled  with  a  road  roller 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  69 

until  it  is  compact.  About  a  six-inch  layer  of  stone 
is  rolled  at  one  time.  After  the  stone  is  sufficiently 
rolled,  screenings  or  binder  is  spread  on  top  and 
rolled.  This  causes  the  pieces  of  broken  stone  to 
knit  together.  Sometimes,  a  special  binding  prepara- 
tion is  used  and  such  roads  are  known  as  bituminous 
macadam  roads.  A  good  macadam  road  costs  from 
two  thousand  to  ten  thousand  dollars  a  mile.  It  is 
a  durable  road  for  moderate  traffic,  but  is  not  suc- 
cessful where  there  is  heavy  traffic  as  in  cities. 

Brick  and  Concrete  Roads. — The  failure  of  the 
dirt,  sand  clay,  gravel  and  macadam  roads  to  stand 
heavy  traffic  has  caused  some  communities  to  use 
brick  and  concrete.  Cuyahoga  County  (Cleveland, 
Ohio),  has  many  miles  of  brick  pavement  on  country 
roads;  Wayne  County,  (Detriot,  Michigan),  and 
Milwaukee  County,  Wisconsin,  have  used  concrete 
extensively  for  roads. 

Street  Pavements. — When  we  consider  the  streets 
of  cities,  we  should  consider  them  as  roads  which 
are  called  upon  to  bear  heavier  traffic  and  conse- 
quently need  to  be  stronger.  The  kind  of  roads 
sufficient  for  the  smaller  traffic  of  the  country  will 
not  do  in  the  city.  Even  the  macadam  road  will  not 
endure  under  city  traffic.  The  very  best  pavements 
that  have  been  devised  are  not  able  always  to  stand 
the  strain  of  the  traffic  on  busy  streets.  Cobble 
stone  and  stone  block  were  the  first  forms  of  city 
pavement.  Then  came  brick,  specially  hardened  for 
paving  purposes,  and  wood  block.  Asphalt  next  came 


70  OUR  AMERICA 

into  use  and  is  now  the  most  common  form  of  pave- 
ment. Concrete  pavements  have  been  put  down  ex- 
tensively during  the  last  few  years  in  city  and 
country.  Various  forms  of  patented  pavements  have 
been  invented  and  used,  as,  Bitulithic,  Warrenite, 
Rocmac,  etc.  The  process  of  building  all  these  pave- 
ments, including  brick  and  concrete,  consists  in 
placing  the  proper  thickness  of  these  materials  upon 
a  solid  foundation  usually  made  of  concrete. 

Success  Dependent  Upon  Intelligent  Construction. 
— There  have  been  many  failures  of  all  kinds  of  pav- 
ing and  there  are  examples  of  success  for  each,  which 
suggests  that  the  success  or  failure  may  be  due  to  the 
method  of  construction  and  maintenance.  The  mat- 
ter of  foundation  is  all  important.  The  best  surfac- 
ing will  not  hold  upon  a  weak  and  crumbling  founda- 
tion. The  pavement  must,  also,  be  adapted  td  the 
place  and  the  traffic.  Soil  conditions  and  climate 
also  have  their  effect.  It  is  the  work  of  an  expert  to 
select  pavements  suitable  to  a  given  place  and  super- 
vise their  construction.  Billions  of  dollars  have  been 
wasted  by  incompetent  men  in  charge  of  building 
roads. 

Repair  and  Maintenance. — Repair  of  both  roads 
and  streets  is  all  important.  Generally  it  has  been 
done  in  a  haphazard  way  by  men  who  are  not  ex- 
perts at  the  work.  Dirt  roads  are  usually  looked 
after  by  farmers  who  spend  a  day  or  two  a  year  at 
the  work  and  have  no  chance  to  become  skilled  in  it. 
Gravel  and  macadam  roads  are  generally  left  for  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  71 

most  of  the  year  uncared  for  and  little  causes  bring 
large  troubles.  Streets  are  too  often  managed  by 
politicians  who  are  not  appointed  because  of  their 
knowledge  and  skill  in  repairing  and  maintaining 
streets. 

The  remedy  for  these  conditions  is  to  be  found 
in  providing  for  skilled  men  to  look  after  the  roads 
and  streets  the  year  round.  Instead  of  repairing 
country  roads  once  a  year,  skilled  road  men  should 
be  employed  at  all  times  to  look  carefully  after  the 
roads  and  repair  any  defects  as  soon  as  they  appear. 

The  patrol  system  is  the  ideal  plan  for  country 
roads.  A  certain  number  of  miles  of  road  should 
be  put  under  the  supervision  of  a  competent  man 
who  should  go  over  the  road  daily,  repairing  any 
breaks  in  the  road,  filling  holes,  and  keeping  the 
drains  open.  "A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine"  is  a  good 
maxim  to  apply  in  caring  for  the  roads.  Materials 
for  road  repair  should  be  distributed  along  the  road 
so  as  to  be  always  at  hand  for  the  use  of  the  road 
patrolmen.  City  streets  should  be  patrolled  in  the 
same  way  and  constantly  repaired. 

Control  and  Management  of  Roads. — We  come, 
now,  to  the  matter  of  control  and  management  of 
these  matters  upon  which  the  people  spend  three  hun- 
dred million  dollars  every  year  out  of  taxes  and  mil- 
lions more  from  bond  issues.  These  matters  are 
managed  by  road  districts,  townships,  counties  and 
the  state.  The  cities  and  towns  look  after  their  own 
streets. 


72  OUR  AMERICA 

Local  Control  and  Management. — Sometimes  it 
makes  a  matter  clear  to  tell  a  bit  of  history,  and  the 
control  of  roads  can  be  illustrated  by  that  method. 
A  few  years  ago  the  roads  of  this  country  were  man- 
aged entirely  by  local  authorities.  The  townships 
and  the  road  districts  into  which  the  townships  or 
counties  were  divided  were  supreme  masters  of  road 
building  and  repair.  A  township  road  commissioner 
or  the  road  district  pathmaster  was  the  principal  road 
official.  All  able-bodied  men  were  compelled  to  work 
on  the  roads  or  pay  the  road  tax  assessed  against 
them.  The  road  supervisor  or  pathmaster  ordered 
the  men  out  to  work  on  the  roads  at  convenient  times 
and  the  men  came  with  tools  or  teams  and  generally 
loafed  or  at  most  did  only  a  fraction  of  a  good  day's 
work.  The  scheme  did  not  anywhere  result  in  good 
roads.  There  was  no  expert  supervisor  of  roads  and 
no  road  engineer  to  look  after  difficult  problems. 
The  roads  in  many  parts  were  impassable  for  a  large 
part  of  the  year. 

State  Aid  and  Supervision. — As  long  as  people 
had  no  concern  outside  of  their  vicinity  this  system 
brought  no  general  hardship.  Each  community 
suffered  from  its  own  neglect.  But  as  relations 
broadened  and  each  community  began  to  depend 
upon  other  communities,  when  cities  grew  up  which 
had  to  depend  upon  a  wider  area  of  country  for  sup- 
port, it  brought  hardships  to  others  if  a  community 
neglected  its  roads.  It  became,  evident,  at  once, 
that  in  some  way,  all  of  the  people  who  depended 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  73 

upon  the  roads  should  have  a  voice  in  their  control. 
Powers  were  given  to  counties  to  build  and  maintain 
the  more  important  highways.  The  same  force 
finally  brought  the  state  into  action  to  build  main 
roads  because  of  the  need  for  good  means  of  trans- 
portation over  wider  areas.  The  coming  of  the  auto- 
mobile and  motor-truck  has  made  even  the  state  too 
small  a  unit  and  we  have  now  the  agitation  for 
national  aid  so  that  great  thoroughfares  may  con- 
nect all  parts  of  the  country. 

In  almost  every  state  the  course  of  development 
has  been  the  same.  Local  control  has  given  way  to 
the  larger  interests  of  the  counties  and  state.  The 
movement  has  been  helped  considerably  by  the  recog- 
nition that  road  building  is  a  scientific  matter  and 
that  experts  are  needed  for  it.  The  larger  the  area 
having  charge  of  the  roads,  the  better  the  talent  em- 
ployed. It  was  an  improvement  to  center  the  work 
in  a  township  officer  who  worked  all  the  time.  It 
was  a  further  improvement  when  a  single  officer 
supervised  the  work  for  a  whole  county.  It  was  a 
real  step  for  efficiency  when  state  highway  depart- 
ments were  formed  with  expert  engineers  to  give 
advice  and  to  supervise  highway  work. 

In  some  states  the  old  system  of  purely  local  con- 
trol still  exists.  Several  states  have  partly  aban- 
doned it,  and  many  have  done  away  with  it  entirely. 

Plan  for  Control  of  Roads. — The  best  thought  of 
the  country  and,  also,  the  best  practise  approves  the 
system  now  being  established  as  follows: 


74  OUR  AMERICA 

1.  Township    officials    have    charge    of    township 
roads,  mostly  dirt  roads. 

2.  A  county  road  official  has  charge  of  the  more 
important   roads    connecting   different    parts    of   the 
county   and   gives   advice   to   township   officials    and 
supervises  their  work. 

3.  A  state  department  or  engineer  gives  aid  and 
counsel   to   county   and   township    officials    on   road 
problems,    inspects    and    supervises'  highway    work, 
tests   materials   for   road   construction,   passes   upon 
plans  for  road  improvement,  and  has  charge  of  main 
highways  which   are   known  usually  as   state   high- 
ways. 

4.  A  national  bureau   of  roads   studies   the  best 
methods    of   road   construction   in   all   parts    of   the 
world,  gives  expert  advice  to  road  pfficials  of  states, 
counties  and  townships,  publishes  educational  liter- 
ature  on   road   making,   and  would,   if  national   aid 
should  be  granted  to  help  build  good  roads,  pass  upon 
the  plans  of  the  states  for  which  national  aid  is  asked. 

This  scheme  of  roads  is  paid  for  by  all  concerned. 
The  township  builds  and  maintains  the  roads  which 
are  useful  mainly  to  its  people.  The  county  builds 
and  maintains  the  roads  which  are  useful  to  several 
townships.  The  state  builds  and  maintains  the  main 
thoroughfares,  or  the  state  offers  an  inducement  to 
the  counties  and  townships  by  entering  into  a  part- 
nership with  them  by  which  if  they  improve  and  main- 
tain a  satisfactory  road,  the  state  pays  part  of  the 
cost — usually  one-third  to  one-half. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  75 

National  Aid. — The  plan  for  national  aid  extends 
this  aid  proposition.  The  national  government  would 
enter  into  the  partnership  and  agree  to  help  pay  the 
cost  of  roads  which  form  thoroughfares  from  state 
to  state. 

The  Future  Importance  of  Roads. — We  are  un- 
doubtedly just  in  the  beginning  of  road  improve- 
ment in  this  country.  By  1900  scarcely  any  steps 
had  been  taken  to  improve  main  roads.  Now  more 
than  two  hundred  thousand  miles  have  been  im- 
proved. The  people  have  just  begun  to  realize  the 
benefits  which  may  come  from  good  roads  both  in 
the  way  of  profit  and  in  pleasure.  They  have  found 
that  good  roads  result  in  cheaper  transportation  to 
market  and  consequently  lower  costs  to  the  consumer 
and  greater  profits  to  the  producer.  They  have 
learned  that  a  road  is  no  better  than  its  steepest  hills 
and  worst  mud-holes ;  for  the  hills  and  mud-holes 
determine  the  size  of  loads  and  the  ease  of  travel. 

Improved  roads  will  result  in  greater  use.  We 
now  carry  a  little  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  million 
tons  on  the  highways.  We  would  carry  four  times 
that  much  if  we  had  good  roads.  Good  roads  mean 
better  schools,  more  valuable  land,  more  enjoyments 
and  better  relations  among  the  farmers.  They  are 
therefore  the  best  means  of  building  up  the  country 
and  of  keeping  people  from  leaving  for  the  city 


76  OyR  AMERICA 

QUESTIONS   FOR   INVESTIGATION 

Make  a  map  of  the  roads 'of  your  township  or  of  the 
streets  of  your  city  around  your  school. 

Show  on  the  map  the  kinds  of  material  used  on  the 
roads  or  streets  indicated. 

What  are  the  main  conditions  to  be  observed  in  decid- 
ing what  kind  of  improvement  should  be  made  on  a  road 
or  street? 

What  are  the  principal  matters  which  you  would  take 
into  account  in  determining-  whether  a  road  or  street  has 
been  made  at  a  fair  cost? 

What  is  the  relation  of  roads  and  streets  to  the  cost 
of  living? 

What  is  the  value  of  the  system  of  cooperation  in  road 
building  by  which  the  local  governments  do  the  work  on 
plans  from  the  state  and  with. state  aid  for  approved 
roads? 

Does  the  system  of  working  out  the  road  tax  still  pre- 
vail in  your  community?  What  are  the  results  of  it? 

Make  a  list  of  all  of  the  different  types  of  improved 
roads  and  streets  and  have  a  report  upon  each  type  by  a 
member  of  the  class. 

WThat  is  the  value  of  a  traffic  census? 

If  a  road,  in  which  you  are  interested,  should  need 
repairing,  how  would  you  go  about  it  to  get  it  done? 

What  different  kinds  of  road  machinery  are  owned  by 
your  township?  What  different  kinds  of  machinery  for 
street  making  and  repair  does  your  city  own? 

What  is  the  patrol  system  of  repairing  roads  and  streets  ? 

What  is  the  value  to  the  farmer  of  the  building  of  thor- 
oughfares from  state  to  state?  To  the  city  dweller? 

Should  the  farmers  whose  land  borders  a  highway  pay 
an  extra  portion  of  the  cost  of  macadamizing  the  road? 

Would  there  be  any  likelihood  that  improved  roads  would 
increase  the  use  of  motor-trucks  in  your  community  and 
result  in  the  use  of  that  method  for  marketing  crops  ? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  77 


QUESTIONS   FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  concrete  roads  are  preferable  to  brick 
roads. 

Resolved  that  the  national  government  should  give  aid 
to  the  state  for  the  improvement  of  roads. 

Resolved  that  the  patrol  system  is  the  most  practicable 
means  of  maintaining  roads  and  streets. 


WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Page,  Roads,  Paths  and  Bridges. 

(Describes  different  types  of  roads  and  methods  of 

maintenance.) 

Spalding,  Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements. 
American    Highway    Association,    Official    Good   Roads 

Year  Book  of  the  United  States.     (Annual.) 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering. 
State  Highway  Department  or  Engineer. 
County  Highway  Superintendent 'or  Engineer. 
Local  Highway  Officials. 
American  Highway  Association. 


CHAPTER  VII 
HEALTH  PROTECTION 

The  health  of  the  people  is  their  most  important 
concern.  Every  one  should  look  to  the  protection  of 
his  own  health  and  the  strengthening  of  his  body  as 
the  matter  of  most  importance  to  him.  There  is 
much  ill  health  due  to  carelessness  and  ignorance. 
If  knowledge  of  disease  prevention  were  generally 
known,  there  would  be  far  less  sickness  than  at 
present  and  the  length  of  life  would  be  considerably 
increased.  Good  health  is  important  to  the  indi- 
vidual but  it  is  equally  important  to  all  of  the  people 
and  to  the  nation  of  which  they  are  a  part.  A  nation 
in  which  large  numbers  of  people  are  sick  and  which 
does  little  to  prevent  disease,  can  not  stand  against 
strong  healthy  nations. 

Health  Protection  Most  Important.— For  the  bene- 
fit of  the  individual  and  for  the  protection  of  the 
whole  people,  it  is  important  that  careful  attention 
be  given  to  the  matter  of  health.  A  few  people  will 
protect  their  own  health  because  they  know  how,  but 
most  people  must  be  instructed  because  they  do  not 
know  how.  A  few  people  can  not  well  protect  them- 
selves against  disease  and  therefore  all  should  coop- 

78 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  79 

erate  for  prevention.  The  importance  of  health  pro- 
tection increases  as  population  increases  and  as  peo- 
ple live  closer  together  in  crowded  quarters. 

Prevention  of  Filth. — One  of  the  first  duties  which 
the  people  perform  in  health  protection  is  the  pre- 
vention of  filth  which  may  carry  disease  germs.  De- 
caying vegetables,  dead  animals,  and  refuse  of  all 
sorts  are  generally  required  in  the  cities  to  be  re- 
moved and  destroyed  for  they  are  unsanitary  and  fur- 
nish breeding  places  for  rats  and  flies,  both  of  which 
may  carry  disease  germs.  In  the  country  where  no  one 
would  be  affected  but  the  person  causing  the  nui- 
sance to  continue,  it  is  not  so  important  because  only 
the  person  who  is  to  blame  would  suffer,  but  as  soon 
as  it  becomes  dangerous  to  others,  the  people  re- 
quire that  the  nuisance  be  removed.  Where  many 
people  live  close  together,  it  becomes  of  greater  im- 
portance, and  where  large  numbers  of  people  are 
crowded  together  as  in  cities,  it  is  one  of  the  first 
necessities  that  all  kinds  of  filth  shall  be  removed. 

In  the  country,  however  untidy  it  may  be  to  do  so, 
the  wastes  of  the  kitchen  may  be  thrown  out  the 
back  door  without  serious  danger  to  health,  but  in 
the  city  such  waste  would  become  a  menace  to  the 
surrounding  dwellers.  We  could  not  imagine  any 
outside  interference  in  the  way  a  person  keeps  house 
in  the  country  unless  the  conditions  are  extreme- 
ly bad.  No  one  would  go  into  a  kitchen  to  compel 
the  owner  to  clean  up,  but  when  hundreds  of  families 
live  in  a  single  tenement  building,  one  kitchen  might 


80  OUR  AMERICA 

be  the  breeding  place  for  diseases  which  would  affect 
all  of  the  dwellers. 

So  it  is  in  all  matters  relating  to  refuse  and  filth. 
As  population  increases,  refuse  and  filth  become 
more  and  more  dangerous.  In  crowded  cities,  efforts 
must  be  made  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  filth 
and  refuse  where  it  would  endanger  the  health  of 
the  people. 

Power  of  Health  Boards  to  Remove  Nuisances. — 
The  health  boards  of  cities  and  towns  are  authorized 
to  remove  any  such  condition  which  might  be  danger- 
.  ous  to  health.  They  do  so  by  orders  issued  to  the 
owners  of  the  property  in  which  such  nuisance  is 
located;  and  if  the  owner  fails  to  remove  the  bad 
conditions,  the  health  board  often  removes  them  and 
charges  the  expense  to  the  owner.  The  owner  may 
also  be  fined  and  imprisoned  for  failure  to  comply 
with  a  reasonable  order  to  clean  up  his  premises. 

Prevention  Better  Than  Cure. — The  prevention  of 
such  conditions  is,  of  course,  more  important  than 
their  cure.  Prevention  should  always  be  the  ideal  in 
matters  of  this  kind.  Where  bad  conditions  are 
likely  to  exist,  provision  should  be  made  in  advance 
to  prevent  them.  Thus,  in  the  city,  the  individual 
housekeeper  can  not  dispose  of  the  refuse  without 
great  expense.  If  each  individual  took  care  of  it 
himself,  it  would  be  too  heavy  a  burden  because  he 
might  have  to  travel  many  miles  to  find  a  safe  dump* 
ing  place.  Cities  and  towns  provide,  therefore,  for 
the  doing  of  these  things  by  the  government. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  81 

Necessity  of  Sewage  Disposal. — Likewise  in  the 
case  of  sewage,  cities  and  towns  provide  for  the  in- 
stallation of  sewer  systems  and  generally  require  that 
every  house  be  connected  with  the  system  or  have 
a  sanitary  system  of  its  own  for  the  disposal  of  sew- 
age. The  danger  to  public  health  in  this  matter  is 
so  serious  that  the  authorities  make  special  provision 
for  the  inspection  of  the  plumbing  so  as  to  make 
sure  that  disease-breeding  sewer  gas  may  not  escape 
into  the  buildings.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant sanitary  provisions  because  it  prevents  con- 
ditions which  might  breed  disease.  Given  a  good 
system  of  sewage  disposal  and  garbage  collection  and 
a  rigid  set -of  rules  to  require  everybody  to  be  care- 
ful in  the  disposal  of  garbage  and  sewage,  and  the 
worst  dangers  to  health  in  the  city  are  removed. 

Water,  Milk  and  Food  Supply. — The  next  matter 
of  importance  is  that  of  the  water,  milk  and  food 
supply.  In  the  country  and  small  towns  and  even 
in  the  smaller  cities  this  matter  does  not  present  so 
serious  a  problem  since  the  causes  of  contamination 
are  not  so  numerous.  Where  it  is  possible  to  have 
a  good  supply  of  water  from  driven  wells,  there  is 
little  danger  of  disease  from  that  source.  Where 
milk  is  produced  on  neighboring  farms  and  delivered 
immediately  to  the  consumer,  there  is  little  danger. 
The  same  is  true  also  in  the  case  of  ordinary  foods 
furnished  direct  to  the  consumer.  But  where  large 
populations  gather,  there  is  serious  danger  in  driven 
wells,  and  water  for  use  must  be  brought  in  from 


82  OUR  AMERICA 

some  source  entirely  free  from  danger  and  the  water 
must  be  constantly  inspected  to  see  that  no  con- 
tamination occurs. 

There  is  serious  danger  to  the  consumers  when 
milk,  a  day  or  two  old,  comes  hundreds  of  miles, 
very  often,  from  places  which  are  filthy.  Close  in- 
spection has,  therefore,  been  provided  to  see  that 
milk  is  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  and  that 
it  is  shipped  without  delay  to  market  in  the  most 
sanitary  manner  possible.  Danger  to  babies  from 
impure  milk  has  been  so  great  that  special  milk  sta- 
tions have  been  provided  so  that  absolutely  pure 
milk  may  be  secured  for  them. 

In  the  case^of  foods  also,  there  is  very  great  dan- 
ger of  impurities  unless  the  most  sanitary  care  is 
exercised.  A  second  danger  arises  from  the  use 
of  chemicals  to  preserve  foods.  Foods  are  often 
adulterated  with  substances  which  might  have  a  bad 
effect  upon  health.  Close  inspection  is,  therefore, 
provided  to  prevent  adulterated  and  unsanitary  foods 
from  being  sold.  It  is  quite  commonly  required  of 
food  dealers  that  foodstuffs  be  carefully  protected  in 
stores  and  markets.  Poisonous  adulterations  and 
preservatives  are  prohibited  by  law  and  men  are  pun- 
ished for  disobeying. 

Quarantine. — The  health  authorities  have  large 
powers  to  prevent  the  spread  of  contagious  disease 
when  once  started.  The  usual  method  of  prevention 
is  by  quarantining.  Rules  for  such  quarantining  may 
be  partly  or  rigidly  enforced.  Thus,  patients  having 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  83 

chickenpox,  a  disease  which  is  contagious  but  not 
usually  dangerous,  are  quarantined  but  other  per- 
sons may  pass  in  and  out  of  the  premises;  but  in  the 
case  of  smallpox,  patients  are  removed  to  special 
quarantine  places  and  no  one  but  the  physicians  and 
nurses  are  permitted  to  enter. 

Vaccination. — Vaccination  of  school  children 
against  smallpox  is  required  in  many  states  and 
health  authorities  generally  have  the  right  to  re- 
quire such  vaccination  whenever  there  is  danger. 
Vaccination  against  other  diseases  is  sometimes  pro- 
vided but  as  yet  is  not  generally  required. 

Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. — Very  close  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  health  of  children  in 
schools  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease.  In  some 
cities  there  is  constant  inspection.  If  a  child  shows 
any  symptoms  of  illness,  the  teacher  immediately  re- 
fers the  case  to  the  school  physician  and  if  the  child 
is  found  to  have  a  contagious  disease,  immediate  steps 
are  taken  to  prevent  its  spread.  The  school  offers 
such  opportunities  to  spread  disease  that  quick  action 
in  the  detection  of  disease  is  always  necessary. 

Sanitary  Measures. — There  are  many  other  meth- 
ods of  preventing  the  spread  of  disease  coming 
into  common  use.  Almost  everywhere  the  use 
of  the  common  drinking  cup  is  forbidden.  Likewise, 
the  use  of  the  common  towel  is  being  prohibited 
because  of  the  danger  of  transmitting  skin  diseases. 
Regulation  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  railroad  cars, 
street  railway  cars,  and  sleeping  rooms  in  hotels  is 


84  OUR  AMERICA 

rapidly  extending,  not  only  to  promote  the  conve- 
nience of  the  people  who  use  them,  but  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  disease.  Methods  of  dust  prevention  are 
also  being  employed  extensively  because  it  is  recog- 
nized that  dust  is  a  carrier  of  disease,  particularly 
street  dust  which  may  carry  germs  gathered  from 
the  refuse  of  the  sidewalks  and  streets. 

Destroying  the  Fly  and  Mosquito. — One  of  the 
most  important  campaigns  for  disease  prevention 
has  been  the  movement  known  as  "swat  the  fly." 
The  fly  has  been  discovered  to  be  a  means  of  scatter- 
ing disease  and  attempts  are  being  made  in  the  early 
spring  to  kill  them  off  and  to  remove  the  breeding 
conditions.  In  some  places  a  like  campaign  has  been 
made  against  mosquitoes — the  mosquito  being  the 
agent  scattering  such  serious  diseases  as  malaria  and 
yellow  fever.  The  work  of  Colonel  Gorgas  at  Pan- 
ama in  destroying  mosquitoes  and  their  breeding 
places  and  in  establishing  sanitary  conditions,  made 
possible  the  digging  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  place 
which  had  previously  been  a  pest  hole  of  disease  be- 
came, under  his  direction,  as  sanitary  and  healthful 
as  a  temperate  region. 

Diseases  Caused  by  Unhealthy  Occupations. — 
Close  attention  is  being  given  by  the  people  through 
their  health  authorities  to  the  study  of  disease 
caused  by  working  in  certain  occupations.  There 
are  many  trades  carried  on  in  places  which  are  un- 
sanitary. There  are  many  occupations  which  it  is 
almost  certain  death  to  follow  for  any  great  length  of 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  85 

time  as  they  are  now  conducted.  It  was  discovered 
some  years  ago  that  the  manufacture  of  phosphorus 
matches  caused  the  workers  to  be  affected  with  what 
was  known  as  "phossy  jaw,"  a  disease  which  even- 
tually resulted  in  death.  The  manufacture  of  such 
matches  has  been  recently  prohibited. 

There  are,  also,  many  occupations,  known  as  dusty 
trades,  in  which  men  take  into  their  system  con- 
stantly dust  and  fumes  which  in  many  cases  result 
in  diseases  which  are  often  fatal.  To  prevent  these 
conditions  and  many  others,  health  authorities  and 
other  inspectors  make  investigation  of  the  effect  of 
various  conditions  upon  the  human  system,  and  of 
means  of  preventing  such  conditions  in  factories  and 
workshops.  It  is  easy  enough  to  prevent  dust  and 
fumes  when  it  is  discovered  that  they  are  dangerous. 
No  one  knows  how  many  thousands  of  people  have 
suffered  unnecessarily  from  such  causes.  We  do  know 
that  thousands  of  people  have  died  from  tuberculosis 
caused  by  inhaling  dust  which  has  affected  the  lungs. 

Hospitals  and  Asylums. — From  the  list  of  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  people  to  prevent  diseases,  it  is 
apparent  that  some  of  the  people's  best  work  is  in 
that  line.  Many  cities  and  towns  provide  hospitals  for 
the  cure  of  diseases,  including  tuberculosis  hospitals 
where  patients  suffering  from  consumption  are 
cared  for,  and  inebriate  asylums  where  patients 
suffering  from  the  drink  habit  are  cured.  City  hos- 
pitals are  provided  for  the  cure  of  the  sick  and  the 
injured,  but  in  general  the  cure  of  diseases  has  been 


86  OUR  AMERICA 

left  to  the  individuals  and  the  physicians.  The  peo- 
ple, however,  have  made  provision  so  that  even  in 
this  matter  the  individuals  are  .protected.  No  one  is 
permitted  to  practise  medicine  unless  he  is  qualified. 
People  believe  that  health  is  too  precious  to  be  left 
to  quacks.  No  one,  in  most  states,  may  engage  in 
dentistry,  or  in  optical  work,  or  in  nursing,  or  prac- 
tically in  any  form  of  practise  involving  medicine  or 
intended  to  cure  diseases,  unless  he  shows  that  he  is 
qualified  and  receives  a  license  from  the  state. 

The  Result  of  Health  Work. — This  wide  range  of 
health  activities  suggests  the  question:  "What  is  it 
accomplishing?  Have  we  had  results  from  it  so  far 
which  should  cause  us  to  hope?"  From  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  we  have  positive  proof  as  shown 
in  the  death  returns.  For  instance,  from  1900  to 
1913  the  average  deaths  per  thousand  of  population 
decreased  three  and  five-tenths  per  cent,  among  a 
population  of  sixty-three  million  included  in  the  area 
from  which  figures  were  gathered.  This  is  the  best 
evidence  of  the  total  results  of  health  work.  Given 
in  terms  of  people  saved,  it  means  that  if  the  death 
rate  had  been  the  same  in  1913  as  in  1900,  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-one  thousand  more  people  would 
have  died  in  that  year.  As  a  result  of  the  practical 
application  of  hygiene  the  death  rate  has  decreased 
both  in  the  country  districts  and  in  cities.  It  has  been 
more  marked  in  the  cities  where  better  sanitary  con- 
ditions and  stricter  health  enforcement  have  reduced 
a  very  high  death  rate  to  a  death  rate  which  is  only 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  87 

a  little  greater,  on  the  average,  than  that  for  the  rural 
districts.  The  average  death  rate  in  cities  for  each 
year  from  1901  to  1905,  was  seventeen  and  four-tenths 
per  thousand,  while  in  1913  the  rate  was  fifteen  per 
thousand.  The  death  rate  in  the  rural  districts  was 
fourteen  and  one-tenth  per  thousand  in  the  years  from 
1901  to  1905,  and  twelve  and  seven-tenths  per  thou- 
sand in  1913. 

Although  much  good  work  has  been  accomplished, 
there  is  much  yet  to  be  done.  Professor  Irving 
Fisher  of  Yale  University  estimated  in  1911  that  there 
are  six  hundred  thirty  thousand  preventable  deaths 
every  year  in  this  country  and  that  there  are  three 
million  persons  at  all  times  on  the  sick  list,  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  of  whom  are  work- 
ers. He  estimates  that  this  sickness  costs  five  hundred 
million  dollars  in  loss  of  wages  and  that  five  hundred 
million  dollars  are  spent  for  medicines.  One-half  of 
this  total  loss  is  preventable. 

The  Part  of  Nation,  State  and  Locality  in  Health 
Protection. — The  carrying  on  of  health  work  is  con- 
ducted through  the  various  governments  from  the 
township  to  nation.  The  principal  work  is  being 
done  by  states  and  cities.  Each  state  has  a  health 
board  or  health  officer  to  look  after  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  state  health  laws  and  to  aid  cities,  towns 
and  communities  in  the  prevention  of  disease.  Every 
city  and  large  town  has  its  health  officer  or  health 
board,  invested  with  proper  power  in  enforcing  all 
laws  and  regulations  relating  to  health.  In  some 


88  OUR  AMERICA 

states,  there  are  health  officers  looking  after  the  health 
of  the  rural  communities.  The  nation  itself  does  not 
have  great  power  in  health  matters  and  it  does  its 
most  effective  work  in  studying  diseases  and  givirig 
information  concerning  their  prevention.  The  United 
States  Public  Health  Service  does  invaluable  work  in 
this  connection.  The  experts  from  this  bureau  aid 
states  and  cities  in  solving  their  health  problems.  The 
United  States  health  authorities  also  have  power  to 
control  matters  affecting  public  health  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  and  in  the  harbors  and  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  The  greater  efficiency  of  the  United  States 
Health  Service  has  often  caused  the  states  to  invite 
its  aid  in  fighting  disease. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  local  and  state  officials  in  your 
state  who  deal  with  public  health  questions. 

If  a  nuisance  is  allowed  to  exist  on  a  neighboring  prop- 
erty, what  steps  could  you  take  to  have  it  removed? 

Find  from  the  local  health  officials  what  are  the  quar- 
antine regulations  of  your  community.  Get  copies  of 
notices  posted  on  quarantined  premises. 

What  reasons  can  you  give  for  greater  unhealth fulness 
of  cities? 

Why  is  the  death  rate  of  the  country  so  nearly  that  of 
the  cities  when  health  conditions  should  be  so  much 
better  in  the  country? 

What  does  it  cost  us  to  be  sick? 

What  provision  "is  made  in  your  school  for  medical 
examination  ? 

Are  health  regulations  well  enforced  in  your  commu- 
nity? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  89 

The  death  rate  in  the  rural  districts  is  about  thirteen  per 
thousand.  What  would  be  the  total  number  of  deaths  in 
the  rural  district  using  the  figures  shown  in  Chapter  V? 
What  would  be  the  total  number  of  deaths  in  the  cities,  at 
the  average  rate  of  fifteen  per  thousand? 

If  by  improved  health  work  the  rate  should  be  reduced 
three  per  thousand,  what  would  be  the  total  lives  saved  in 
the  country?  In  the  city? 

Name  the  methods  of  disease  prevention  which  you  know 
about. 

What  are  the  principal  dangers  to  the  food  supply? 
Water  supply?  Milk  supply? 

Several  states  have  passed  laws  requiring  bed  sheets  in 
hotels  to  be  long  enough  entirely  to  cover  the  mattress  and 
turn"  back  three  feet  over  the  quilts.  Discuss  the  impor- 
tance of  these  laws  as  sanitary  measures. 

Give  reasons  for  the  regulation  of  factories  to  require 
ventilation  and  methods  of  dust  prevention. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DEBATE 

Resolved  that  all  children  should  be  vaccinated  before 
coming  to  school. 

Resolved  that  provision  should  be  made  to  examine 
the  health  of  every  child  in  school,  including  eyesight  and 
teeth. 

Resolved  that  every  factory  in  which  men  work  should 
be  investigated  by  health  experts  and  be  approved  by 
them  as  to  sanitation,  ventilation  and  lighting. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Godfrey,  The  Health  of  the  City. 

Hoag  and  Terman,  Health  Work  in  the  Schools. 

Harris,  Health  on  the  Farm. 


90  OUR  AMERICA 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

United  States  Public  Health  Service.  / 

State  Board  of  Health. 
City  Board  of  Health  or  Health  Officer. 
Other  Local  Health  Authorities. 
American  Medical  Association. 
American  Public  Health  Association. 
American    Association    for    Labor    Legislation     (for 
Health  in  Factories). 


CHAPTER  VIII 
EDUCATION 

The  people  of  the  United  States  have  always  been 
very  strong  in  their  support  of  education.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  in  Massachusetts,  within  a  very 
few  years  after  the  founding  of  the  colony,  Harvard 
University  was  established.  Even  in  those  'early 
times,  schools  and  the  means  of  instruction  were 
quite  generally  provided  in  some  colonies,  the  expec- 
tation being  that  through  education  a  virtuous  lot 
of  people  would  be  secured. 

Education  Always  Supported  in  This  Country. — 
When  the  people  took  control  of  their  own  affairs 
in  the  revolution,  it  became  evident  that  every  per- 
son .who  had  a  voice  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs  should  be  educated  sufficiently  to  help  handle 
affairs  intelligently.  Those  states  which  gave  every 
man  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  the  right  to  vote 
soon  found  that  each  of  the  voters  must  be  edu- 
cated since  each  had  a  voice  in  affairs.  The  consti- 
tution of  Massachusetts  which  was  adopted  in  1780 
declared  that: 

"Wisdom  and  knowledge,  as  well  as  virtue,  dif- 
fused generally  among  the  body  of  the  people,  being 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  their  rights  and 

91 


92  OUR  AMERICA 

liberties;  and  as  these  depend  on  spreading  the  op- 
portunities and  advantages  of  education  in  the  va- 
rious parts  of  the  country,  and  among  the  different 
orders  of  the  people,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  legisla- 
tures and  magistrates,  in  all  future  periods  of  this 
commonwealth,  to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature 
and  the  sciences,  and  all  seminaries  of  them;  espe- 
cially the  university  at  Cambridge,  public  schools 
and  grammar  schools  in  the  towns;  to  encourage 
private  societies  and  public  institutions,  rewards  and 
immunities,  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  arts, 
sciences,  commerce,  trades,  manufactures." 

Present  Extent  of  Education. — Other  states  fol- 
lowed with  similar  declarations,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  that  free  schools  be- 
came quite  general.  To-day,  however,  every  state 
in  the  Union  provides  free  elementary  schools.  Most 
of  the  states  provide  high  schools  and  all  of  them 
either  have  state  universities  or  are  amply  provided 
with  privately  managed  colleges  and  universities. 
Every  state  in  the  Union  except  three,  now,  (1916) 
compel  children  to  attend  the  school  from  the  time 
they  are  eight  until  they  are  twelve  or  fourteen,  and 
in  some  cases  until  they  are  sixteen  years  of  age. 

Purposes  of  Education. — It  is  recognized  that  edu- 
cation should  do  two  things:  first,  it  should  equip 
the  individual  with  power  to  take  care  of  himself, 
to  earn  a  living  and  to  live  with  the  fullest  enjoyment 
possible;  second,  it  should  train  every  one  to  perform 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  93 

the  duties  of  citizenship,  that  is,  to  help  manage  the 
people's  affairs  with  intelligence. 

The  people  as  a  whole  want  the  latter  result  but 
it  is  recognized  that  no  one  can  be  a  good  citizen 
unless  he  is  first  able  to  take  care  of  himself.  If 
education  were  a  matter  solely  of  benefit  to  the 
individual,  the  people  would  not  care  to  spend  their 
money  to  support  it,  but  the  education  of  each  is  so 
essential  to  the  welfare  of  all,  that  schools  have  come 
to  be  looked  upon  as  necessary  among  people  who 
govern  themselves. 

Education  Must  Be  Universal. — It  is  recognized, 
too,  that  education  must  be  universal.  No  one  would 
justify  the  support  of  a  school  by  all  of  the  people 
to  educate  a  few.  Any  scheme  of  schools  which  we 
set  up  must,  therefore,  aim  to  give  the  best  kind  of 
an  education  possible  to  every  person  in  the  state. 
We  should  provide  that  kind  of  education,  there- 
fore, by  which  all  of  the  people  may  profit.  And  if 
we  can  not  at  once  provide  all  kinds  of  education 
suited  to  all  kinds  of  people,  we  should  provide  that 
education  which  reaches  the  largest  possible  number. 

Elementary  Education. — The  first  kind  of  educa- 
tion that  we  should  support,  therefore,  is  elementary 
education,  meaning  that  period  of  education  from 
six  years  of  age  to  fourteen  or  sixteen.  We  compel 
everybody  to  go  to  school  during  the  years  from 
eight  to  fourteen.  Practically  every  one  will  have 
from  now  on  an  elementary  education.  Our  duty 


94  OUR  AMERICA 

is,  therefore,  to  make  that  education  as  good  as  pos- 
sible. We  are  justified  in  spending  more  money  on 
elementary  education  than  on  any  other  kind  be- 
cause all  of  the  children  are  going  to  profit  by  it. 

During  this  period  of  education,  children  should 
get  the  ability  to  use  the  tools  of  knowledge,  that 
is,  they  should  be  made  able  to  read,  write,  cipher  and 
compose.  They  should  also  have  practical  work 
in  the  ordinary  things  about  them  so  that  they  will 
understand  better  the  conditions  under  which  they 
are  to  live.  Girls  should  learn  domestic  science. 
Boys  should  take  many  branches  of  manual  train- 
ing, including  wood  and  iron  work.  Boys  in  the 
rural  districts  should  have  the  chance  to  study  ele- 
mentary agriculture,  care  of  animals,  the  repair  of 
farm  machinery  and  other  matters  which  are  com- 
mon in  the  country.  All  children  should  learn  the 
important  matters  of  history.  They  should  be  able 
to  read,  with  intelligence  and  delight,  some  of  the 
better  literature.  They  should  begin  during  this 
period  to  test  themselves  out  to  see  what  line  of 
work  they  ought  to  select  as  a  life-work. 

Every  child  by  the  time  he  reaches  the  age  of 
fourteen  should  have  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  workings  of  government.  He  should  begin  with 
the  small  affairs  of  the  community;  he  should  learn 
how  roads,  streets,  sewers,  bridges,  playgrounds  and 
parks  are  constructed.  He  should  learn  how  these 
public  works  are  managed  and  what  common  bene- 
fits are  derived  from  them ;  he  should  know  how  offi- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  95 

cers  are  elected  and  what  the  principal  duties  of  the 
various  officials  are;  especially,  he  should  learn  his 
own  duties  as  a  young  citizen. 

Higher  Education. — At  fourteen  years  of  age, 
some  of  the  children  may  choose  to  go  to  high 
school,  where  an  education  broader  in  scope  is  se- 
cured. A  part  of  those  who  go  to  high  school  may 
choose  to  go  on  to  the  college  and  the  university 
in  order  to  get  a  still  broader  education.  From  the 
elementary  school  to  the  very  highest  form  of  edu- 
cation the  chance  is  thus  given  to  any  person  who 
has  the  ability  to  master  the  courses. 

Vocational  Education. — At  fourteen  years  of  age, 
however,  many  young  people  need  to  prepare  for 
actual  work.  Some  will  actually  go  to  work  at  four- 
teen without  preparation,  but  such  a  course  is  un- 
fortunate, for  the  person  who  thus  goes  to  work 
unprepared  does  not  often  get  into  a  position  m 
which  he  can  prepare  himself  for  anything  better. 
Most  of  the  positions  which  boys  and  girls  take  at 
fourteen  are  "blind  alley  jobs,"  that  is,  jobs  which 
have  no  future  in  them. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  who  wish  to 
prepare  for  work,  many  of  the  states  provide  voca- 
tional schools  where  they  may  study  simple  trades 
and  occupations  and  where  they  may  prepare  to  be- 
gin the  study  of  the  more  skilled  trades  and  occu- 
pations. Many  schools  provide  regular  instruction 
in  trades,  agriculture,  business  and  home-making  so 
that  any  person  desiring  to  fill  such  occupations  may 


96  OUR  AMERICA 

prepare,  thoroughly,  for  them.  Likewise,  when  the 
boy  or  girl  has  graduated  from  high  school  or  from  ' 
college,  he  may  desire  to  prepare  for  such  fields  as 
law,  medicine,  dentistry,  pharmacy  or  engineering. 
Practically  all  of  the  states  already  provide  the 
means  for  that  kind  of  education  at  public  expense. 

Part-Time  Schools. — Recognizing  that  some  chil- 
dren may  for  one  cause  or  another  have  left  school 
at  fourteen  without  any  preparation  for  work,  the 
schools  are  beginning  to  provide  part-time  courses  so 
that  any  youth  who  has  gone  to  work  may  come  back 
a  few  hours  a  day  or  a,  few  hours  a  week  and  get 
further  instruction.  He  may  thus  learn  while  con- 
tinuing to  earn.  In  many  cases,  it  is  so  arranged 
that  boys  work  in  a  shop  a  week  and  come  back  the 
next  week  to  school.  Sometimes,  they  work  a  day 
in  each  place — the  boy  who  is  in  school  to-day  being 
in  the  shop  to-morrow. 

The  education  thus  given  is  of  two  kinds.  Those 
who  have  found  a  suitable  occupation  may  desire 
instruction  which  will  help  them  to  learn  thoroughly 
that  occupation.  A  boy  working  in  a  machine  shop 
could  thus  learri,  with  the  aid  of  the  school,  to  be 
a  thorough  machinist.  The  second  kind  of  educa- 
tion is  for  those  who  are  not  in  a  kind  of  occupation 
which  is  suitable  for  them  to  follow  as  a  life-work. 
An  elevator  boy,  for  instance,  would  not  want  to 
study  the  operation  of  the  elevator  because  such  a 
process  is  so  simple  that  it  is  mastered  in  a  short 
time.  He  would  want  education  which  would  pre- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  97 

pare  him  to  study  some  occupation  which  he  could 
take  up  as  a  profitable  life-work. 

In  some  cases  part-time  education  is  carried  on  in 
the  evening,  but  this  is  more  specially  for  grown 
workers  who  want  to  study  matters  connected  with 
their  trades.  For  young  workers,  part-time  educa- 
tion is  usually  organized  so  that  the  boys  and  girls 
are  given  time  enough  off  during  their  daily  work 
to  get  this  instruction. 

Extension  and  Correspondence. — But  many  people 
who  have  left  school  can  not  come  back  to  the  school. 
Whatever  education  they  get  after  leaving  must  be 
secured  outside.  For  these,  nearly  every  state  in 
the  Union  provides  some  form  of  work  known  as 
extension  work.  The  farmer  and  the  farmer's  wife 
are  thus  supplied  with  information  and  material  from 
which  they  may  study  agriculture  and  home  work. 
Lecturers  from  the  extension  centers  visit  all  parts 
of  the  state  and  talk  with  the  people  upon  the  things 
they  want  to  know.  County  agents  of  agriculture 
and  extension  workers  go  out  upon  the  farms  at  the 
request  of  farmers  to  help  them  study  problems  of 
the  soil  and  of  crops  and  animals.  Such  help  is  given 
to  workers  in  many  other  lines  of  activity.  It  is  pos- 
sible also  for  a  person  residing  in.  any  part  of  the 
state  to  secure  a  college  education  at  home  through 
the  extension  division  which  sends  out  regular  les- 
son papers  to  guide  the  student  in  his  studies.  Writ- 
ten reports  are  made  to  the  university. 

Public  Library. — The  public  library,  which  is  or- 


98  OUR  AMERICA 

ganized  to  provide  materials  for  reading  and  study, 
affords  another  channel  by  which  people  continue 
their  education  after  they  have  left  school.  It  is  of 
great  value  to  the  graduate  of  the  elementary  or 
vocational  school  and  also  to  the  college  graduate. 
By  means  of  the  library  any  person  can  continue  his 
education  in  any  line  of  work  and  unless  a  person 
does  continue  his  education  through  constant  read- 
ing of  material  that  is  worth  while,  his  early  edu- 
cation will  not  have  amounted  to  very  much. 

Complete  System  Provided. — So  we  find  provided 
in  many  states  a  complete  system  of  education  by 
which  all  persons  are  given  the  elements  of  knowl- 
edge and  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  continue 
their  education  throughout  life.  The  means  are  pro- 
vided, and  it  is  entirely  within  the  power  of  the  indi- 
viduals to  get  as  much  or  as  little  as  they  desire. 
We  compel,  all  people  to  take  the  elementary  courses 
because  we  believe  that  that  much  is  essential  for 
their  welfare  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  as  a 
whole.  It  may  be  that  we  ought  to  compel  further 
studies.  Some  states  are  already  compelling  boys 
who  go  to  work  to  come  back  a  few  hours  a  week 
until  they  are  sixteen  years  of  age.  Others  are  con- 
sidering the  matter  of  extending  the  age  limit  to 
eighteen  years.  How  far  we  may  extend  the  period 
of  compulsory  education  is  a  matter  to  be  decided 
as  time  goes  on. 

The  Management  and  Control  of  Education. — The 
management  and  control  of  education  is  left  entirely 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  99 

in  the  hands  of  the  state  which  in  turn  puts  duties 
upon  the  cities,  towns,  counties  and  townships.  In 
every  state  there  is  an  educational  officer,  usually 
known  as  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, the  commissioner  of  education  or  commission- 
er of  common  schools,  who  is  in  most  states  elected 
by  the  people.  He  has  general  supervision  over  the 
schools  and  in  some  cases  has  much  power  to  compel 
them  to  keep  up  to  certain  standards. 

State  Board  of  Education. — A  number  of  states 
have  a  state  board  of  education.  Some  states 
make  their  state  superintendent  an  officer  of  this 
board.  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts 
put  the  board  in  complete  control  of  the  state's  part 
in  education  and  this  board  selects  the  commissioner 
of  education.  The  state  board  in  several  states  has 
very  little  to  do  with  education,  but  merely  looks 
after  state  educational  funds. 

City  Schools. — In  the  cities,  schools'  are  usually 
conducted  by  boards  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
city  government.  These  boards  attend  to  the  busi- 
ness affairs  of  the  schools  and  appoint  a  superintend- 
ent, who  under  their  general  direction  carries  on  the 
educational  work.  A  few  cities  have  provided  for  a 
business  director  who  looks  after  the  business  affairs 
of  the  schools. 

County  Superintendent. — In  most  of  the  states, 
there  is  also  a  county  superintendent,  who  has  gen- 
eral supervision  over  the  schools  of  the  county.  In  a 
few  states  the  county  superintendents  are  directly 


100  OUR  AMERICA 

responsible  to  the  state  superintendents;  but  in  many 
states,  they  are  not  responsible  except  in  minor  mat- 
ters and,  therefore,  each  does  his  work  as  he  sees  fit. 
They  have  authority,  in  some  states,  to  license  teach- 
ers, but  the  tendency  is  to  put  the  matter  of  licensing 
teachers  in  the  hands  of  the  state  board  of  education 
or  state  superintendent. 

Local  School  Officers. — Schools  are  conducted  in  a 
majority  of  the  states  outside  of  cities  by  local  school 
officials  elected  by  districts  in  which  the  townships 
or  counties  are  divided.  In  a  few  states  a  township 
official  has  charge  of  the  schools  of  the  entire  town- 
ship. * 

Support  of  Education. — Schools  are  largely  sup- 
ported by  local  taxation.  The  state,  out  of  a  tax 
which  it  levies  upon  all  of  the  people  of  the  state  or 
from  the  interest  from  the  funds  which  it  has  created, 
distributes  the  proceeds  to  the  school  districts  to  help 
support  the  schools.  In  those  states  which  have  pro- 
vided for  vocational  education,  the  state  pays  part  of 
the  cost. 

The  Service  of  the  National  Government  to  Edu- 
cation.— The  national  government  has  no  power  con- 
cerning education,  but  it  maintains  the  Bureau  of 
Education  for  the  purpose  of  studying  problems  and 
giving  aid  and  advice  on  different  phases  of  educa- 
tion. In  this  way,  it  has  done  a  great  work  in  pro- 
moting better  methods  of  instruction  and  in  solving 
important  problems. 

The  national  government  has  been  of  great  service 


THE  ELEMENTS  Off  CIVICS  \ //<         101 

to  education  through  the  grant  of  lands  and  money. 
These  grants  of  land  began  in  the  very  early  years 
of  the  government.  The  national  government  owned 
vast  areas  of  land,  and  it  gave  a  certain  section  in 
each  state  for  the  benefit  of  common  schools.  Grants 
of  land  for  various  purposes  have  been  given  from 
time  to  time  and  the  total  has  reached  many  million 
dollars.  Most  of  the  permanent  school  funds  of  the 
states  have  been  built  up  from  the  sales  of  land, 
granted  by  the  federal  government  or  from  moneys 
directly  given  by  the  nation. 

The  whole  scheme  of  agricultural  education  has 
been  largely  due  to  federal  aid.  The  famous  Morrill 
Act  of  1862  gave  each  state  a  certain  amount  of  land 
for  the  building  of  an  agricultural  and  mechanical 
college.  As  a  result  of  these  grants  an  agricultural 
and  mechanical  arts  college  has  been  established  in 
every  state  in  the  Union.  In  1887  the  federal  govern- 
ment gave  additional  grants  of  land  and  money  to  car- 
ry on  agricultural  experiment  work  and  as  a  result 
agricultural  experiment  stations  have  been  established 
in  all  the  states.  More  recently,  large  grants  of 
money  have  been  given  to  the  states  to  help  carry  on 
extension  work  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture.  It  is 
further  proposed  that  the  national  government  shall 
give  aid  for  the  development  of  vocational  schools  in 
trades  and  industries  and  agriculture.  Nearly  all  of 
the  money  and  lands  given  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment have  been  given  outright  to  the  states  to  handle 
as  they  please.  It  is  recognized  of  late  that  such 


102  OU£  AMERICA 

an  arrangement  is  a  partnership,  and  the  federal  gov- 
ernment is  providing  that  the  states  shall  spend  at 
least  an  equal  amount,  and  that  they  shall  conduct 
the  work  in  an  approved  way  in  order  to  get  federal 
aid. 

Service  of  State  and  National  Departments. — In 
addition  to  providing  for  a  system  of  education  calcu- 
lated to  serve  all  men,  the  state  and  national  govern- 
ments perform  splendid  educational  service  through 
many  of  their  departments.  In  fact  many  of  the  de- 
partments of  both  state  and  national  government 
look  upon  this  service  as  their  main  object. 

Road  Investigations. — We  have  already  seen  how 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Roads  is  engaged  con- 
stantly in  studying  the  best  method  of  road  building 
and  maintenance  and  in  giving  out  the  knowledge 
thus  gained  to  the  people  of  the  country  to  aid  them 
in  their  road  problems.  We  are  beginning  to  look 
to  this  bureau  for  expert  guidance  in  road  matters. 
The  state  highway  departments  are  doing  the  same 
kind  of  service  in  a  more  limited  way,  but  altogether 
these  educational  services  are  tending  to  put  road 
building  on  a  scientific  basis. 

Health  Service.— The  United  States  Health  Service 
is  doing  splendid  work  in  helping  to  solve  the  health 
problems  of  the  nation  through  education.  State 
boards  of  health  were  originally  organized  to  do  edu- 
cational work.  These  boards  are  training  the  local 
health  officers  and  are  broadening  the  knowledge  of 
public  health  among  the  people.  By  means  of  bul- 


Studying  Domestic  Science 


Studying  Agriculture 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  103 

letins,  leciures,  institutes  and  conferences,  the 
newest  and  best  methods  of  disease  prevention  and 
nf  sanitary  control  are  brought  to  the  attention  of 
>ocal  officers  and  of  the  people. 

Children's  Care.— The  Children's  Bureau  in  Wash- 
ington is  purely  educational  in  its  character.  It  has 
not  a  single  power  of  law  enforcement.  It  merely 
studies  the  matters  of  child  protection  and  care  and 
gives  information  out  to  the  country  to  guide  the 
people  in  the  care  of  infants  and  in  the  protection  of 
children.  Expert  service  in  this  line  will  prove  of 
great  benefit.  When  all  people  are  intelligently  in- 
formed, children  will  be  better  cared  for  and  trained. 
The  large  losses  of  lives  of  babies  demand  the  most 
intelligent  study  and  the  most  practical  application  of 
the  result.  State  boards  of  health  and  other  child- 
caring  agencies  are  doing  a  similar  work  in  the  states. 

Agricultural  Investigation. — The  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  almost  wholly  devoted  to  the  study  and 
spreading  of  information  relating  to  agriculture,  for- 
estry and  animal  husbandry.  Their  work  means  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  dollars  every  year  to  the  farmers 
.ID  increased  production  and  in  better  rural  conditions. 
/ts  work  in  the  states  is  carried  on  through  the  agri- 
c  itural  colleges  and  experiment  stations. 

Labor  Investigation. — 1  he  Department  of  Labor 
is  dcing  a  similar  service  tor  labor  and  the  conditions 
of  workers.  It  studies  actual  conditions  and  gives 
the  information  for  the  guidance  of  the  public.  State 
departments  of  labor,  factory  inspection  and  indus- 


104  OUR  AMERICA 

trial  boards  are  the  states'  agencies  in  doing-  this 
same  work.  One  of  their  greatest  services  is  in  edu- 
cation for  accident  prevention. 

Commercial  Investigation. — The  Department  of 
Commerce  aids  the  business  men  of  the  country  by 
constant  study  of  trade  conditions,  foreign  markets, 
methods  of  doing  business,  and  by  giving  this  in- 
formation freely  to  the  public. 

Tests  and  Experiments. — The  educational  work  of 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards  is  another  of 
the  ways  in  which  the  people's  government  seeks  to 
discover  knowledge  which  will  serve  the  people. 
Tests  are  made  by  this  bureau  in  almost  every  phase 
of  scientific  work.  Delicate  apparatus  fix  the  stand- 
ards for  weights  and  test  materials  of  all  kinds. 
Many  of  the  great  discoveries  in  physics  and  espe- 
cially electricity  are  due  to  the  work  of  this  bureau. 
Some  state  departments  and  state  universities  are 
doing  similar  work  on  a  smaller  scale. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  are  the  provisions  of  your  state  constitution  in 
regard  to  education? 

Outline  the  system  of  education  in  your  community 
and  state,  including  elementary  schools,  high  schools, 
vocational  schools,  colleges,  extension  work  and  libraries. 

Are  there  any  arrangements  in  your  community  by 
which  children  work  a  part  of  the  time  and  come  back 
to  the  school  a  part  of  the  time  to  get  education  in  the 
line  of  work  in  which  they  are  engaged  ? 

What  provisions  are  made  for  compulsory  education 
in  your  state? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  105 

Are  young-  workers  under  sixteen  compelled  to  return 
to  the  schools  for  any  instruction? 

What  is  the  value  of  correspondence  study? 

Show  the  advantages  of  the  county  agent  system  by 
which  an  expert  in  agriculture  is  at  the  call  of  the  farm- 
ers to  advise  with  them. 

What  are  the  principal  objects  of  education? 

What  is  the  object  of  vocational  education? 

Show  how  the  system  of  state  supervision  and  state 
aid  makes  better  schools. 

What  difference  should  there  be  between  the  schools 
of  the  city  and  the  schools  of  the  country? 

How  does  the  library  fit  in  as  a  part  of  the  educational 
system  ? 

Write  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  or 
commissioner  of  education  at  the  state  capital  and  ask  for 
a  copy  of  the  school  laws. 

What  connection  should  there  be  between  the  work  of 
your  school  and  the  work  of  the  community? 

Do  the  schools  prepare  young  folks  for  actual  work  ? 

What  is  the  advantage  of  having  facilities  to  continue 
one's  education  after  leaving  school? 

Do  the  workers  whom  you  know  read  books  relating  to 
the  occupations  in  which  they  are  engaged? 

QUESTIONS    FOR   DEBATE 

Resolved  that  education  should  be  made  compulsory 
up  to  seventeen  years  of  age. 

Resolved'  that  all  persons  under  eighteen  years  who 
have  gone  to  work  should  be  compelled  to  return  to 
school  for  at  least  six  hours  a  week. 

Resolved  that  vocational  education  should  be  provided 
at  public  expense  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  kinds  of  people, 


106  OUR  AMERICA 

WHERE   TO    LOOK   FOR   FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 

Chap.  XIV  "Education  of  the  Worker." 
Lapp  and  Mote,  Learning  to  Earn. 
Betts  and  Hall,  Better  Rural  Schools. 
Dewey,  Schools  of  Tomorrow. 
U.   S.    Commissioner    of    Education,    Annual    Reports 

(Free.) 

School  laws  of  your  state. 
Report  of  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  or  Commis- 
sioner of  Education. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

National  Education  Association. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Edu- 
cation. 

American  Home  Economics  Association. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SOME  CITY  PROBLEMS 

The  growth  of  cities  has  been  the  most  striking 
fact  of  the  last  half  century.  In  1850  there  were  only 
12.49  per  cent,  of  the  people  living  in  the  cities  of 
more  than  eight  thousand  population.  In  1860  the 
percentage  had  risen  to  16.13  per  cent.  In  1870  there 
were  20.93  per  cent.;  in  1880,  22.57  per  cent.;  in  1890, 
29.20  per  cent.;  in  1900,  33.10  per  cent.;  and  in  1910, 
38.8  per  cent.  Everywhere  in  the  world,  among  civil- 
ized people,  the  tendency  is  the  same;  a  larger  and 
larger  percentage  of  the  people  find  their  homes  in 
the  city.  Probably  the  percentage  of  city  dwellers 
will  increase  for  many  years  until  perhaps  the  prob- 
lem of  producing  enough  foodstuffs  will  cause  people 
to  turn  back  to  the  country  to  get  a  living. 

Growth  of  Cities. — The  increase  in  the  city  popula- 
tion, as  a  whole,  has  been  steady  but  many  cities  have 
had  phenomenal  increases  and  some  have  grown  up 
in  a  very  brief  time.  Gary,  Indiana,  rose  from  sand 
piles  in  1905  to  a  city  of  sixteen  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  two  in  1910.  Oklahoma  City  increased  from 
ten  thousand  and  thirty-seven  in  1900  to  sixty-four 
thousand  two  hundred  and  five  in  1910,  and  many 
other  cities  increased  almost  as  fast.  The  cities  of 

107 


108  OUR  AMERICA 

Chicago  and  New  York,  with  their  enormous  popu- 
lations, increased  28.7  per  cent,  and  38.7  per  cent,  re- 
spectively from  1900  to  1910. 

Problems  of  City  Growth. — This  rapid  growth  of 
cities  has  brought  important  problems  to  the  front. 

First,  there  is  the  problem  of  circulation — the 
planning  and  building  of  streets  and  alleys  so  that 
there  may  be  free  traffic.  Streets  wide  enough  to 
handle  a  small  traffic,  when  called  upon  to  handle 
twice  that  traffic,  must  be  widened,  more  streets  must 
be  opened,  or  the  traffic  diverted  to  other  streets. 
The  problem  of  getting  food  and  other  materials 
easily  from  the  country  requires  that  thoroughfares 
be  opened  connecting  with  the  main  highways  leading 
into  the  country.  Without  such  thoroughfares  every 
load  of  goods  brought  into  a  large  city  must  travel 
long  distances  to  get  to  market.  . 

Second,  a  forecast  of  the  future  growth  of  the  city 
must  be  made.  Every  new  addition  of  territory  to  a 
city  should  be  subject  to  control  by  the  city  so  that 
narrow,  crooked,  disjointed  streets  may  be  avoided. 
In  many  cities,  the  separate  real  estate  additions  show 
their  boundaries  by  jogs  in  the  street  where  the  real 
estate  owners  have  done  as  they  pleased  in  planning 
streets,  without  reference  to  the  streets  of  the  city, 
just  to  satisfy  their  greed  in  getting  the  largest  num- 
ber of  city  lots  possible  from  their  land. 

Planning  Cities. — The  city  of  Washington  is  our 
model  city  from  the  standpoint  of  planning.  It 
is  well  that  this  is  so  because  it  is  the  one  city 


5V) 
§ 


d 

Q 

f 

IS 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 


109 


which  all  the  people  of  the  country  claim  as  their 
own.  The  plan  is  due  to  George  Washington  who 
was  president  when  the  city  was  laid  out.  He  called 
to  his  aid  General  L'Enfant  a  French  engineer  who 
had  served  with  Washington  in  the  Revolution. 
L'Enfant  visited  the  cities  of  Europe  to  study  their 
plans.  He  laid  out  a  city  which  in  the  arrangements 
of  its  streets,  parks  and  spaces  for  public  buildings  is 
ideal.  He  planned  for  the  future.  His  plan  was  on 

X  A  V 


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1 

: 

1 

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i 

i 
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a  great  enough  scale  to  provide  for  a  city  many  times 
larger  than  any  city  then  existing  in  this  country  and 
it  will  probably  be  adequate  for  the  future  growth  of 
the  city. 

Nearly  every  city  is  laid  out  on  the  plan  of  a 
checker-board.  Streets  cross  one  another  at  right 
angles  and  there  are  few  diagonal  streets.  The  diffi- 


110 


OUR  AMERICA 


culties  of  this  arrangement  in  getting  in  and  out  of 
the  city  are  very  great  as  will  be  seen  in  the  diagram. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  main  business  section  of 
the  city  is  in  the  center  of  the  diagram.  It  would  be 
in  a  direct  line  over  streets  A  to  B  or  C  to  D  to  the 
center,  but  if  a  person  desired  to  go  from  any  point 
such  as  X  or  Y  to  the  center  he  would  have  to  travel 
in  every  case  a  long  distance  to  get  to  a  street  lead- 
ing to  the  center. 

For  convenience  in  travel  and  carrying  goods,  the 
ideal  city  plan  is  to  take  the  checker-board  as  in  the 
diagram  above  and  lay  upon  it  diagonal  streets  like 
the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  Thus : 


The  center  in  this  arrangement  of  streets  can  be 
easily  reached  by  means  of  the  four  streets  at  right 
angles  and  the  four  diagonal  streets. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  111 

Very  few  cities  have  such  a  plan.  The  older  cities 
in  the  eastern  states  are  generally  laid  out  irregularly 
with  crooked  streets  or  else  on  the  checker-board  plan 
following  the  example  of  Philadelphia  which  was  laid 
out  in  that  form  by  William  Penn.  Indianapolis  is 
one  of  the  best  examples  of  a  proper  arrangement  of 
main  streets,  having  a  plan  similar  to  the  last  dia- 
gram with  a  circle  in  the  center. 

Many  large  cities  which  followed  the  checker-board 
plan  have  found  it  necessary  to  cut  new  streets  at 
immense  cost  to  enable  the  business  of  the  city  to 
be  done.  The  proposed  plans  of  several  great  cities, 
notably  Chicago  and  Philadelphia,  provide  for  new 
diagonal  streets.  To  cut  such  streets  where  expensive 
buildings  have  already  been  built  is  an  immense  and 
costly  task,  yet  each  year  that  it  is  postponed  increases 
the  cost. 

Railroads  and  Terminals. — The  planning  of  cities 
for  convenience  includes  the  arrangements  for  rail- 
roads and  interurban  railroads  entering  the  city,  and 
the  building  of  passenger  stations  and  freight  ter- 
minals. Many  cities  have  not  given  attention  to  this 
matter  and  yet  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
the  railroads  be  most  conveniently  arranged  for  quick 
and  cheap  transportation  of  people  and  goods.  The. 
well  planned  city  makes  provision  for  railroads  to 
enter  at  certain  convenient  places.  A  central  pas- 
senger station  is  provided  with  ample  facilities  to 
handle  all  the  passengers  and  yards  sufficient  to 
enable  cars  and  trains  to  be  handled  without  delay. 


112  OUR  AMERICA 

A  clumsy  arrangement  by  which  even  a  few  minutes 
are  lost  each  day  by  passengers  means  a  tremendous 
total  for  all  passengers  coming  into  and  going  out 
of  a  city. 

Freight  and  express  terminals  are  equally  im- 
portant. If  the  arrangements  are  imperfect  and 
clumsy,  expense  is  added  to  every  car  of  goods  com- 
ing into  and  going  out  of  the  city.  This  expense  is  a 
tax.  New  Orleans  has  recently  built  a  great  freight 
terminal.  Before  it  was  built,  it  .cost  considerably 
more  to  handle  a  car  of  freight  in  or  out  of  the  city 
than  it  does  now. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  city  to  plan  for  such  ter- 
minals. Delays  mean  added  cost.  Not  to  make  such 
arrangements  means  that  the  city  taxes  its  people 
for  every  extra  dollar  of  cost  necessary  to  handle 
goods  or  people  in  and  out  of  the  city.  The  same 
statements  apply  also  with  reference  to  the  building 
of  wharves  for  water  traffic  in  all  cities  having  a 
harbor. 

Providing  for  Street  Traffic. — Another  necessity  in 
planning  is  to  provide  for  street  traffic  with  the  great- 
est ease  and  least  expense.  In  the  large  cities  this 
is  a  problem  of  building  subways,  elevated  roads,  and 
providing  for  suburban  train  service.  In  the  smaller 
cities,  it  means  the  extension  of  street-car  lines  and 
the  routing  of  the  cars  so  as  to  bring  every  one  within 
reach  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  city  and  prevent 
crowding  on  any  street.  Every  means  possible 
should  be  used  to  make  it  easy  and  cheap  for  people 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  113 

to  get  about,  as  well  as  to  come  into  and  go  out  of 
the  city. 

Making  Cities  Beautiful. — The  modern  plans  of 
the  cities  have  also  as  an  object  the  beautifying  of 
the  cities  and  the  convenient  grouping  of  the  public 
buildings.  Several  cities  have  developed  what  is 
known  as  the  civic  center  where  are  grouped  the  city 
hall,  public  library,  court-house  and  other  government 
buildings.  Cleveland,  San  Francisco  and  Denver 
have  begun  the  building  of  such  a  center  while  many 
cities  have  plans  which  look  forward  to  such  an 
arrangement.  The  plans  for  beautifying  the  city 
provide,  also,  for  parks,  boulevards,  playgrounds  and 
small  open  spaces. 

Progressive  cities  are  reaching  out  in  advance  of 
growth  and  buying  great  tracts  of  land  which  can  be 
turned  into  parks  and  playgrounds.  The  streams  in 
and  about  many  cities  are  being  beautified  by  placing 
boulevards  and  parks  along  their  banks.  The  rail- 
road entrances  which  are  frequently  the  most  un- 
sightly parts  of  our  cities,  are  being  parked  so  as  to 
give  a  pleasant  impression.  Ugly  buildings  are  being 
bought  and  torn  down  and  the  open  spaces  are  turned 
into  parks.  Mulberry  Bend,  one  of  the  worst  con- 
gested districts  in  New  York  where  nothing  but 
shabby  tenements  existed,  was  bought  a  few  years 
ago  by  the  city.  The  buildings  were  torn  down  and 
the  place  is  now  a  beautiful  spot  where  the  people 
of  that  crowded  section  may  have  a  breathing  space. 
Every  city  which  tries  to  serve  its  people  is  remov- 


114  OUR  AMERICA 

ing  such  eyesores  and  letting  a  beauty  spot  take  their 
place. 

The  expense  of  such  work  has  always  been  a  great 
drawback.  To  buy  such  valuable  property  as  is  often 
necessary  takes  vast  sums  of  money.  The  cities  have 
been  kept  from  extensive  work  of  this  sort  on  ac- 
count of  the  expense.  But  recently  a  plan  known  as 
"excess  condemnation"  has  been  put  into  use  in 
several  cities.  By  this  plan  the  city  buys  up  land 
adjoining  that  which  it  intends  to  retain  and  when 
the  value  has  been  increased  by  improvement,  the 
extra  land  is  sold  at  a  profit.  The  entire  cost  of 
building  of  parks  and  boulevards  may  often  be  paid 
in  this  way  without  cost  to  the  city. 

Bill-Boards  and  Height  of  Buildings. — Cities  are 
also  attempting  to  improve  their  appearance  by  pro- 
hibiting unsightly  bill-boards  and  by  requiring  some 
uinformity  in  building  lines  so  that  the  appearance  of 
a  street  shall  not  be  "straggly."  The  height  of  build- 
ings is  limited  in  some  cities.  Monument  Circle  in 
Indianapolis  is  protected  from  unsightly  high  build- 
ings by  a  requirement  that  no  building  on  the  Circle 
shall  be  more  than  two  hundred  feet  high.  New 
York  and  Chicago  and  other  cities  have  ordinances 
limiting  the  height  of  buildings. 

Municipal  Art. — A  few  cities  are  looking  to  artistic 
decoration  of  the  streets  and  public  buildings. 
Artistic  street  lighting,  street  signs,  monuments  and 
other  works  are  receiving  attention.  In  several  cities 
no'monument  or  other  work  of  art  is  allowed  to  be 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  115 

set  up  unless  it  is  approved  by  a  board  usually  known 
as  an  art  commission. 

Housing. — All  of  the  work  of  city  planning  has  for 
its  object  the  furnishing  of  a  fitting  place  for  the 
homes  of  the  people.  The  crowding  of  people  makes 
living  more  difficult  and  dangerous  and  the  city  must 
see  that  as  far  as  possible  such  evils  and  dangers  of 
city  life  are  removed. 

By  a  scheme  of  city  planning  a  great  deal  of  the 
congestion  of  a  city  is  removed.  When  it  is  possible 
for  people  to  get  to  their  work  quickly  and  cheaply 
they  can  live  farther  out  and  in  places  around  which 
there  is  plenty  of  light,  air  and  space.  In  the  larger 
cities,  however,  the  very  best  means  of  traffic  can  not 
remove  the  congestion.  Pressure  for  space  crowds 
the  people  together.  Several  houses  are  built  on  the 
space  where  one  stood  before;  several  families  live 
in  the  same  house;  many  people  are  often  found  liv- 
ing in  a  single  room.  The  tenement  comes  and 
people  live  tier  above  tier  in  the  narrow  rooms,  with- 
out sunlight  or  sufficient  air.  Rents  rise  and  more 
people  crowd  into  single  rooms  in  order  to  divide  the 
expense.  Diseases  spread  and  children,  especially, 
suffer. 

Conditions  like  those  described  above  exist  in  some 
parts  of  nearly  every  city.  But  the  people  of  cities 
are  beginning  to  see  the  dangers  of  letting  human 
beings  live  in  that  way.  People  living  under  such 
conditions,  whether  through  ignorance  or  necessity, 
are  unable  to  protect  themselves,  and  all  of  the  people 


116  OUR  AMERICA 

join  in  the  common  cause  of  protecting  them.  Pro- 
gressive cities  are  beginning  to  require  that  plenty 
of  air,  light  and  space  be  provided  when  buildings 
are  being  erected  and  they  are  also  beginning  to  re- 
quire that  light  and  air  be  given  an  opportunity  to 
get  into  the  dark  places.  Buildings  are  being  re- 
modeled to  admit  light  and  air.  Better  sanitary  con- 
ditions are  being  required,  and  although  the  people 
are  often  too  closely  crowded  for  comfort,  such  con- 
ditions are  becoming  far  better. 

Some  cities  are  also  building  small  homes  in  the 
convenient  open  country  where  street-car  service  is 
available.  These  places  may  be  rented  at  small  cost 
and  offer  a  chance  for  good  living  conditions  for  those 
who  take  advantage  of  them. 

Playgrounds. — The  crowded  city  causes  another 
problem  to  arise :  that  of  giving  the  children  a  chance 
to  play.  Those  who  have  grown  up  in  the  country 
have  little  idea  what  it  means  to  be  a  child  in  the  city 
where  the  busy  street  or  a  narrow  back  yard  are  the 
only  playgrounds.  Children  must  have  a  chance  for 
wholesome  play  if  they  are  to  develop  properly.  The 
cities  have  only  lately  recognized  this  fact  and  have 
begun  to  do  justice  in  this  respect  to  the  children. 

In  the  country  ample  playgrounds  surround  each 
schoolhouse,  but  in  the  cities  there  are  many  school 
buildings  without  playgrounds.  Whenever  possible, 
however,  the  new  building  plans  provide  for-  play- 
grounds with  apparatus  for  many  kinds  of  play.  The 
buildings  generally  include,  also,  gymnasiums  and 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  117 

swimming  pools  so  that  play  may  be  continued  the 
year  round.  Progressive  cities  are  also  buying  up 
vacant  lots  and  making  playgrounds  of  them  in  the 
crowded  parts  of  the  city.  Some  cities  have  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  small  parks  within  reach  of  all  the 
people  where,  besides  ample  space  for  individual  play, 
there  are  fields  for  baseball,  basket  ball,  football  and 
other  outdoor  sports.  Chicago  is  a  notable  example 
of  the  use  of  small  parks.  Almost  every  part  of  that 
city  has  its  small  park.  Practically  all  of  the  people 
can  reach  these  parks  for  play.  The  sight  of  thou- 
sands of  children  and  grown  folks  in  them  makes 
city  life  look  more  wholesome  and  attractive.  . 

Residence  Districts. — One  of  the  newer  ways  in 
which  the  people  of  cities  protect  themselves  is  by 
setting  off  certain  districts  which  are  called  residence 
districts  and  preventing  anything  but  residences  from 
being  built  there.  Industries  are  given  their  place, 
also.  Under  such  regulations,  a  man  who  builds  a 
house  is  certain  that  an  objectionable  manufacturing 
plant,  a  livery  stable,  or  garage  will  not  be  built  next 
door  to  him. 

Markets. — Food  supply  is  the  city's  most  important 
problem.  Fully  thirty  per  cent,  of  all  that  people  earn 
is  spent  for  food.  How  to  get  enough  to  live  com- 
fortably is  each  man's  chief  concern. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  problem  is  to  get 
goods  from  the  producer  to  the  consumer  with  the 
least  cost.  Every  cent  added  by  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting, due  to  bad  roads  and  poor  railroad  facilities, 


118  OUR  AMERICA 

makes  it  that  much  harder  for  the  people  to  live  com- 
fortably. When,  to  exorbitant  costs  of  transportation 
are  added  the  profits  of  the  middleman,  the  cost  of 
living  is  forced  up  considerably.  The  problem  of 
cities  is  to  reduce  both  the  cost  of  transportation  by 
furnishing-  the v very  best  roads,  streets  and  railroad 
facilities,  and  by  providing  public  markets  so  that  as 
nearly  as  may  be,  the  producer  and  consumer  may 
be  brought  together. 

Not  more  than  half  of  the  larger  cities  of  the 
country  now  have  public  markets.  Many  of  those 
which  do  have  markets,  have  merely  one  central  mar- 
ket to  which  all  must  come.  Poor  regulations  have 
left  the  markets  too  often  in  the  hands  of  the  com- 
mission merchants  and  the  market  is  merely  a  kind  of 
store  which  the  city  supplies  at  small  rent  rather  than 
an  open  market. 

The  ideal  market  is  a  place  where  the  actual  pro- 
ducer comes  with  his  products.  The  city  of  Des 
Moines  which  has  done  good  work  with  its  market 
requires  each  seller  on  the  market  to  display  a  sign 
showing  whether  he  is  a  producer  or  a  huckster. 
This  enables  the  people  to  deal  directly  with  the  pro- 
ducer and  also  keeps  down  the  prices  charged  by 
hucksters. 

Garbage  Removal. — The  large  population  in  cities 
brings  the  problem  of  disposing  of  the  waste.  We 
have  already  discussed  the  necessity  of  removal  of 
garbage  and  sewage  to  protect  health.  The  people 
of  a  city  could  not  live  if  waste  were  allowed  to  ac- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  119 

cumulate  even  for  a  short  time.  Garbage  is  disposed 
of  in  the  following  ways:  reduction,  burning,  feed- 
ing to  swine,  dumping  on  land,  dumping  in  water, 
burying. 

The  most  approved  method  of  disposal  is  by  reduc- 
tion. The  1'arger  cities  use  this  method  quite  gen- 
erally. In  several  cities  contractors  collect  the  gar- 
bage free  and  make  their  profit  from  the  by-products 
of  which  the  chief  are  grease  and  fertilizer.  Many 
cities  pay  contractors  for  collection  and  the  contract- 
ors make  additional  profit  on  the  sale  of  by-products. 
In  Cleveland  and  other  cities,  the  city  owns  the  re- 
duction plant  and  makes  a  profit  for  the  city  in  its 
operation. 

Many  cities  burn  their  garbage.  This  disposes  of 
it  completely,  but  of  course  the  valuable  by-products 
are  wasted.  The  steam  produced  by  the  plant  is  used 
in  several  cities  to  generate  electric  light  for  various 
purposes. 

Feeding  garbage  to  swine  is  quite  extensively  re- 
sorted to  and  garbage  is  sometimes  sold  to  farmers 
for  this  purpose.  A  few  cities  have  droves  of  hogs 
fed  on  garbage.  Contractors  generally  feed  a  large 
part  of  the  garbage  they  collect  to  hogs. 

Dumping  on  land  or  in  water  is  the  favorite  method 
of  the  small  place  or  the  place  situated  near  water. 
This  is,  of  course,  a  complete  waste.  Burying  is  also 
a  complete  waste  besides  having  many  expensive 
features. 

Sewage   Disposal. — Sewage    disposal    has    usually 


120  OUR  AMERICA 

been  accomplished  by  the  cities  of  this  country  by 
dumping  into  streams  and  bodies  of  water  and  leav- 
ing it  to  be  carried  away  by  the  current  or  the  tides. 
Cities  have  tried  various  make-shift  systems  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  their  sewage  without  regard  to  the  way 
it  polluted  the  water  and  affected  neighboring  people. 
Many  cities  are  now  experimenting  with  various 
methods  of  sewage  disposal.  Gradually  they  will  find, 
as  in  the  case  of  garbage,  that  profits  can  be  made  by 
scientific  processes  of  disposal. 

The  city  of  Berlin  has  reclaimed  thousands  of  acres 
of  poor  land  and  made  it  as  productive  as  a  garden 
by  the  use  of  sewage  as  fertilizer.  Their  sewage 
farms  are  models  of  production.  There  is  not  a  city 
in  the  country  that  could  not  profit  by  Berlin's  ex- 
perience. 

The  cities  which  are  not  situated  so  as  to  discharge 
sewage  into  streams  or  which  are  enlightened  enough 
not  to  do  so  when  such  an  act  would  harm  others, 
have  built  works  for  the  disposal  of  sewage,  or  more 
strictly  speaking,  works  for  the  purification  of  sewage 
from  disease  germs  and  offensive  odors  before  it  is 
discharged  into  streams. 

This  process  is  one  of  filtration.  Simple  filtration 
is  effected  by  letting  the  sewage  run  into  large  beds 
filled  with  sand  and  gravel.  The  filtration  of  the 
water  through  the  layers  of  sand  and  gravel  removes 
most  of  the  solid  parts  and  destroys  most  of  the  dis- 
ease germs.  The  purified  water  is  then  discharged 
into  a  stream  or  body  of  water. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  121 

The  septic  tank  is  coming  into  use  quite  exten- 
sively. This  is  a  process  of  filtration  in  which  chem- 
icals are  used  to  destroy  the  disease  germs.  The 
methods  employed  in  the  cities  of  this  country  are 
not  entirely  satisfactory  and  efforts  are  being  made 
to  discover  a  method  of  sewage  purification  or  dis- 
posal which  will  get  rid  of  sewage  with  safety  to  the 
public  health  at  the  lowest  possible  cost  and  with  the 
least  damage  to  property  and  nuisance  to  people. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   INVESTIGATION 

Make  a  map  of  your  city  or  a  near-by  city  showing  the 
streets. 

Does  the  arrangement  of  streets  permit  easy  and  quick 
entrance  to  the  city  from  the  whole  surrounding  country? 

On  the  map  of  the  city,  indicate  the  railroads  entering 
the  city  and  the  passenger  stations  and  freight  terminals. 
What  improvements  could  be  made  for  convenience? 

Locate  the  public  buildings  and  parks  and  discuss  their 
accessibility  to  the  mass  of  people. 

What  does  your  city  do  to  make  the  city  beautiful  ? 

What  provisions  are  made  for  playgrounds? 

Are  there  any  crowded  quarters  where  housing  condi- 
tions are  bad? 

Describe  the  method  employed  in  collecting  and  dis- 
posing of  garbage. 

Describe  the  sewerage  system. 

Do  you  have  a  public  market?  If  so,  do  the  producers 
actually  come  with  their  goods? 

What  plan  would  you  suggest  to  make  it  easier  to  mar- 
ket produce  from  producer  to  consumer? 

Do  you  have  any  regulation  of  bill-boards? 


122  OUR  AMERICA 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  cities  should  buy  the  land  which 
would  be  benefited  by  a  park  or  boulevard  and  sell  the 
same  when  the  value  increases  from  the  improvement. 

Resolved  that  the  city  should  own  and  manage  its  pub- 
lic utilities,  including  waterworks,  gas  works,  electric  light 
works  and  street  railways. 

Resolved  that  the  city  should  engage  in  public  marketing 
so  as  to  bring  the  producer  and  consumer  together. 

WHERE    TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Farwell,  Village  Improvement. 

Robinson,  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities. 

Howe,  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems. 

Chap.  I  "The  City  and  Civilization." 

Chap.  IV  "The  Modern  City." 

Chap.  V  "The  American  City." 

Chap.  XII  "The  City  and  the  Public  Service  Corpo- 
rations." 

Chap.  XIII  "Municipal  Ownership  in  America." 

Chap.  XV  "City  Planning  in  America." 

Chap.  XVI  "City  Planning  in  Europe." 

Chap.  XVIII  "The  City  as  a  Social  Agency." 

Chap.  XIX  "The  Housing  Problem." 

Chap.  XXI  "Recreation  and  the  Problem  of  Leisure." 
McVey,  The  Making  of  a  Town. 
Sullivan,  Markets  for  the  People. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Municipal  Ownership. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

National  Municipal  League. 
National  Conference  on  City  Planning. 
National  Housing  Association. 
American  Civic  Association. 
Playgrounds  Association  of  America. 
The  American  City.     (Published  monthly.) 


CHAPTER  X 
SOME  RURAL  PROBLEMS 

We  hear,  on  all  sides,  the  statement  that  the  people 
are  flocking  to  the  cities  and  deserting  the  country 
and  the  census  figures  every  ten  years  prove  the 
statement.  The  population  of  rural  districts  in  many 
states  actually  decreased  during  the  years  1900  to 
1910.  Iowa  actually  lost  one  hundred  fourteen  thou- 
sand seven  hundred  and  fifty  rural  dwellers,  Indiana 
ninety-six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty-two, 
Illinois  forty-three  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty, 
and  Ohio  fifty-seven  thousand  one  hundred  and 
eighty-five. 

Reasons  for  Trend  Away  From  the  Country. — 
There  is  more  than  one  reason  for  this  shifting  of 
population  from  the  country  to  the  city.  First,  the 
attraction  and  glamour  of  the  city  induce  many  who 
do  not  see  the  unhappy  side  of  city  life,  to  become 
city  dwellers.  Second,  the  lack  of  practical  educa- 
tion in  the  country  has  prevented  young  men  from 
seeing  in  the  business  of  agriculture  as  much  promise 
as  there  should  be  for  an  independent  life.  Third, 
the  invention  of  labor-saving  machines  has  made  it 
possible  for  one  man  to  do  the  work  of  several  men. 
The  result  has  been  that  men  do  farming  on  a  large 

123 


124  OUR  AMERICA 

scale  and  few  are  trained  to  take  up  intensive  farm- 
ing, gardening  and  poultry  raising;  hence,  they  must 
seek  other  fields.  Fourth,  the  lack  of  social  advan- 
tages in  the  country  compared  with  the  city  where 
men  may  find  many  opportunities  for  association  with 
their  fellows,  has  caused  many  to  seek  the  city  life. 
Fifth,  the  promise  of  reward  for  the  successful  in  the 
city  has  been  an  enticing  thing.  The  few  who  have 
succeeded  in  gaining  wealth  and  power  in  the  city 
have  been  a  constant  example  for  others  to  imitate. 

Dangers  in  Growth  of  Cities  at  Expense  of  the 
Country. — Whatever  may  be  our  views  of  the  advan- 
tages of  city  life  over  country  life  or  of  country  life 
over  city  life,  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
serious  menace  if  the  city  increases  at  the  expense  of 
the  country.  The  city  will  continue  to  grow  and  the 
country  must  produce  more  and  more  to  supply  com- 
mon needs  or  else  hardships  will  come.  The  country 
must,  also,  produce  more  in  order  that  the  farmers 
shall  prosper  as  they  should. 

Better  Agriculture  Needed. — Better  agriculture  is 
the  crying  need.  We  do  not  produce  enough  per 
acre  of  crops  in  this  country.  The  average  yield  of 
wheat  is  only  about  fifteen  bushels  per  acre,  of  corn 
twenty-seven  bushels,  oats  thirty  bushels,  barley 
twenty-five  bushels,  rye  sixteen  bushels,  potatoes 
ninety-seven  bushels.  European  countries  whose 
soils  are  naturally  no  better  than  our  own  and  which 
have  been  cropped  for  thousands  of  years  produce 
much  more  per  acre  than  this  country.  Germany 


1 


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M 
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THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  125 

gets  twenty-eight  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  and  Eng- 
land thirty-five  bushels.  Germany  produces  two  hun- 
dred bushels  of  potatoes  per  acre.  In  fact,  only 
Russia  is  behind  us  in  the  scale  of  production  among 
the  great  nations. 

Training  for  Better  Agriculture. — The  people  of 
the  whole  country  are  interested  in  this  problem  of 
production  of  crops  because  the  people  must  be  fed. 
They  are  interested,  too,  because  good  crops  mean 
prosperity  for  all,  as  well  as  a  better  country  life. 
Long  ago,  far-seeing  statesmen  saw  the  danger  of 
poor  agriculture  and  set  about  to  prevent  bad  results. 
Schools  of  agriculture  were  established.  Then,  state 
colleges  of  agriculture  came  as  a  result  of  aid  by  the 
federal  government.  Next  the  nation  provided  for 
experiment  stations  in  the  states  where  the  best  farm- 
ing methods  could  be  tested  out.  These  have  been  a 
great  help  in  promoting  the  scientific  study  of  agricul- 
ture. The  next  step  was  to  provide  for  extension  work 
by  which  the  knowledge  gained  by  experiments  and 
practise  could  be  carried  to  the  farmer  on  his  own 
land.  The  farmers  saw  by  practical  demonstration 
that  the  soil  could  produce  much  more  if  properly 
prepared  and  if  the  seed  was  properly  selected  and 
the  soil  properly  treated.  Very  good  results  from 
these  educational  methods  have  been  secured  and 
hundreds  of  men  are  now  engaged  to  inform  the 
farmers  of  the  best  agricultural  knowledge  and  prac- 
tise. Hundreds  of  counties  employ  an  official  known 
as  the  county  agent,  a  man  trained  in  scientific  and 


126  OUR  AMERICA 

practical  farming,  who  is  the  free  counselor  of  the 
farmers  who  want  his  service. 

Frauds  Against  Farmers — Fertilizers. — The  people 
have  taken  positive  steps  also  to  prevent  fraud 
against  the  farmers  in  the  sale  of  fertilizers,  feeding 
stuffs  and  seeds.  When  soils  first  began  to  show 
signs  of  exhaustion,  there  was  created  a  great  demand 
for  fertilizer.  Immediately,  dishonest  men  found  a 
chance  to  make  money  by  fraud.  The  farmer  did 
not  have  the  equipment  to  test  his  fertilizer  and  he 
never  knew  whether  he  had  actually  received  honest 
fertilizers.  Worthless  stuff  was  mixed  to  add  weight, 
and  the  farmers  suffered.  Then  the  people  in  many 
states  took  a  hand  and  made  provision  for  testing  all 
fertilizers  publicly.  They  made  it  a  crime  to  sell  mis- 
branded  fertilizer,  and  they  required  that  the  brand 
state  the  materials  in  it. 

Feeding  Stuffs. — The  same  conditions  with  refer- 
ence  to  feeding  stuffs  for  cattle  resulted  in  laws  which 
required  such  materials  to  be  branded  showing 
exactly  the  properties  of  each  article.  Any  person 
may  take  a  sample  of  feeding  stuffs  and  have  it  tested 
by  the  agricultural  college  or  experiment  station  and 
if  it  proves  false  to  the  brand  may  cause  the  seller  to 
be  subject  to  a  fine. 

Seeds. — Likewise  with  seeds.  The  farmers  in  pur- 
chasing seed,  particularly  grass  seed,  have  suffered 
severe  losses  in  the  quality  of  seed  and  in  the  weed 
seeds  often  mixed  with  timothy  and  clover.  It  is  a 
severe  loss  in  either  case  and  one  that  can  not  be  re- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  127 

paired.  When  seed  does  not  grow  the  crop  is  lost 
for  the  year  and  when  the  seed  of  noxious  weeds  gets 
into  the  soil,  permanent  harm  is  done.  Some  states 
attempt  to  prevent  these  losses  by  requiring  seed  to 
be  sold  only  after  tests  which  show  that  the  seeds 
will  grow  and  that  they  do  not  contain  noxious  weed 
seed. 

Weed  Cutting. — Further  protection  against  losses 
is  offered  by  laws  which  require  the  cutting  of 
weeds  before  the  seed  ripens  and  is  scattered  over 
new  ground.  Many  states  require  the  cutting  of  all 
weeds  on  the  public  highway.  Some  require  a  man 
to  cut  Canada  thistles  and  other  bad  weeds  on  his 
land  during  certain  periods. 

Necessity  for  All  to  Act. — It  is  plain  that  to  get 
protection  in  these  matters  of  fertilizers,  feeding 
stuffs,  seeds  and  weeds,  all  of  the  people  must  act 
together.  One  man  can  do  little  against  the  frauds 
which  are  put  out ;  and  in  the  case  of  weeds,  the  efforts 
of  one  man  would  be  futile  if  his  neighbors  allowed 
weed  seed  to  grow  and  be  scattered  by  the  wind. 

Insect  Pests  and  Animal  Diseases. — Severe  losses 
are  suffered  by  the  farmers  through  insect  pests  and 
animal  diseases.  Probably  two  billion  dollars  a  year 
are  lost  from  these  causes.  One  man  or  a  few  men 
can  not  cope  with  such  enemies.  The  states  and  the 
nation  have  been  constantly  employed  in  studying 
methods  of  prevention  and  have  succeeded  in  find- 
ing means  of  preventing  the  worst  pests  and  diseases. 
When  a  disease  or  pest  gets  started,  drastic  action 


128  OUR  AMERICA 

must  be  taken  in  order  to  stamp  it  out.  Quarantine 
and  wholesale  killing  of  animals  are  often  necessary 
to  stamp  out  a  disease  such  as  the  foot  and  mouth 
disease.  Drastic  action  is  needed,  also,  to  stop  the 
ravages  of  pests.  In  these  cases,  also,  a  few  men 
would  be  helpless.  Nothing  but  the  power  of  many 
people  can  stamp  out  diseases  and  pests  and  save  the 
billions  of  property  endangered, 

Marketing  Crops. — We  have,  thus  far,  been  speak- 
ing of  the  problem  of  producing  bigger  and  better 
crops  and  protecting  them  from  losses.  This  is  im- 
portant but  it  is  equally  important  that  means  shall 
be  provided  for  getting  the  crops  produced  into  the 
hands  of  the  consumer  with  the  least  expense  and 
waste.  The  farmer  would  have  little  interest  in  pro- 
ducing larger  crops  if  his  profits  from  them  were  not 
increased.  Some  way  must  be  found  so  that  larger 
profits  shall  come  to  the  producer  and  lower  costs  tc 
the  consumer.  As  it  stands  now,  the  producer  does 
not  get  a  fair  profit  and  the  consumer  has  to  pay 
more  than  he  can  afford.  The  channels  'through 
which  crops  are  carried  from  the  producer  to  the  con- 
sumer are  too  expensive  and  too  many  people  are  tak- 
ing toll  from  the  proceeds.  Our  system  of  market- 
ing is  clumsy  and  wasteful.  Crops  rot  on  the  ground 
in  the  country  because  the  price  is  not  enough  to  pay 
for  gathering;  while  a  few  miles  away  in  the  cities 
prices  are  so  high  for  the  same  articles  as  to  discour- 
age buying.  It  is  not  an  infrequent  case  to  find 
apples  selling  at  five  dollars  a  barrel  in  the  city  while 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  129 

the  producer  is  not  offered  enough  to  pay  him  to  pick 
his  fruit.  If  foodstuffs  were  sold  at  a  fair  price,  the 
demand  would  increase  and  take  care  of  the  surplus. 
The  middleman  who  is  interested  only  in  profits  does 
not  look  after  the  interests  of  the  people  most  con- 
cerned— the  producer  and  consumer — and  he  does 
not  seek  to  bring  about  better  conditions. 

Cooperation. — To  meet  this  condition  the  problem 
is  being  attacked  from  both  ends.  The  cities  are  pro- 
viding markets  and  other  facilities  to  get  food  direct 
to  the  consumer  and  the  farmers  are  slowly  building 
up  cooperative  organizations  to  handle  their  crops. 
When  the  two  are  worked  out  fully,  we  shall  have 
these  needed  results.  First,  the  producer  will  get  a 
fairer  share  for  his  labor;  second,  the  consumer  will 
be  able  to  live  more  comfortably  on  his  income;  and 
third,  the  large  waste  which  the  present  clumsy  meth- 
ods entail  will  be  prevented. 

There  are  many  difficulties,  and  cities,  states  and 
the  nation  are  all  studying  the  problem  and  helping 
in  its  solution.  The  fruit  growers  of  California, 
Oregon  and  Washington,  the  dairymen  of  Wiscon- 
sin, and  grain  producers  in  several  states  have  been 
highly  successful  in  their  cooperative  marketing  and 
there  are  many  examples  of  similar  successes.  There 
are  also  many  examples  of  failures  and  great  care  is 
needed  to  see  that  the  plan  is  correct  and  that  it  is 
managed  by  men  capable  of  making  it  a  success. 

Transportation. — The  problem  of  markets  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  question  of  roads  and  the  cost  of 


130  OUR  AMERICA 

transportation  on  railroads  and  interurbans.  We 
have  already  seen  the  importance  of  these  agencies 
in  the  exchange  of  goods.  Their  importance  is 
simply  emphasized  here  because  of  their  intimate  re- 
lation to  the  cost  of  living.  When  a  system  of  roads 
radiating  from  a  city  is  kept  up  so  that  goods  may 
be  hauled  at  the  minimum  cost  per  ton  mile,  and  a 
system  of  city  markets  open  to  the  producer  is  pro- 
vided, the  problem  of  getting  the  principal  articles  of 
food  from  producer  to  consumer  will  be  solved. 

Rural  Credits. — The  last  problem  of  the  farmer  to 
be  discussed  here  is  that  of  his  banking  facilities. 
Business  to-day  is  based  upon  credit.  "Rural  credits" 
is  the  term  applied  to  the  banking  business  of  the 
farmer.  A  business  concern  borrows  money  at  the 
banks  and  as  the  profits  come  in,  the  money  is  repaid. 
This  credit  is  necessary  to  him  because  some  time 
passes  between  the  time  that  goods  are  sold  and  the 
receipt  of  the  money.  Many  concerns  manufacture 
several  months  in  advance  of  delivery.  The  banks 
supply  the  need  for  money  to  carry  on  the  business. 

The  farmer  puts  his  own  money  and  labor  into 
preparation  for  a  crop  and  waits  until  the  harvest  for 
his  return.  He  has  need  for  banking  credit  to  pay 
his  bills,  but  such  credit  has  not  been  so  available  to 
him  as  it  has  been  to  the  business  man  or  the  manu- 
facturer. He  could  undertake  much  more  work  and 
produce  better  results  if  he  had  the  capital  at  hand. 

In  the  purchase  of  land,  the  farmer  is  seriously 
handicapped,  especially  in  the  poorer  regions.  There 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  131 

are  sections  where  it  is  hardly  possible  to  secure  a 
small  fraction  of  the  value  of  the  land  on  a  mort- 
gage loan — yet  land  to-day  is  the  most  stable  invest- 
ment. The  farmer  can  not  generally  buy  land  because 
he  is  compelled  to  pay  in  many  cases  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  purchase  price  at  once.  His  need  is  to  have  some 
sort  of  a  credit  system  by  which  he  can  buy  and  own 
land  and  pay  a  reasonable  amount  per  year  until  his 
debt  is  paid.  European  countries  have  provided  means 
by  which  this  may  be  done.  We  have  done  little  thus 
far,  but  the  states  are  taking  steps  to  provide  means 
of  giving  proper  credit  to  farmers  through  banks  so 
that  they  can  finance  farming  operations  and  the  pur- 
chase of  land.  The  national  government  is  taking 
steps  also  to  establish  a  suitable  scheme  and  at  an 
early  date  this  urgent  need  will  be  met  by  the  people 
who  will  act  together  through  their  governments 
to  do  it. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   INVESTIGATION 

If  there  is  a  tendency  in  your  community  for  the  young 
folks  to  leave  the  country  for  the  city,  what  are  the 
reasons  ? 

What  is  the  average  yield  of  different  farm  crops  in 
your  community? 

Has  there  been  any  improvement  in  the  yield  of  farm 
crops  recently,  and  if  so,  why? 

Point  out  the  dangers  to  this  country  in  the  low  aver- 
age production  of  farm  crops. 

Why  should  the  people,  through  their  governments, 
take  steps  to  improve  crop  yields  ? 

Discuss  the  value  of  testing  fertilizers,  seeds,  feeding 
stuffs,  etc. 


132  OUR  AMERICA 

Why  should  or  should  not  farmers  cooperate  in  mar- 
keting their  products? 

What  causes  of  failure  are  there  in  cooperative  work? 

What  advantage  would  it  be  to  the  farmer  if  he  had 
the  same  opportunities  for  credit  that  the  manufacturer 
has? 

Show  the  relation  between  the  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try and  that  of  the  city. 

What  provision  is  made  for  the  testing  of  fertilizers  in 
your  state?  Get  a  sample  of  the  tag  used  as  a  label. 

What  provision  is  made  for  the  testing  of  feeding  stuffs 
for  cattle  ?  Get  a  sample  of  the  tag  used  as  a  label. 

What  is  done  to  test  seeds? 

What  weeds  are  common  on  the  farms  in  your  vicinity  ? 

Give  all  of  the  reasons  which  you  can  give  in  support 
of  a  law  to  compel  all  farmers  to  cut  weeds  on  the  farms 
and  on  the  roadside  before  they  go  to  seed. 

What  insect  pests  damage  crops  in  your  vicinity  ?  What 
does  your  state  and  community  do  to  prevent  such  pests  ? 

Where  do  the  farmers  of  your  commuity  market  their 
crops  ? 

Trace  the  products  from  the  farm  to  the  consumer. 

In  many  places  the  farmers  use  the  parcels  post  to  send 
products  to  city  customers.  Does  that  method  prevail  in 
your  community? 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  farmers  should  organize  cooperative 
organizations  to  sell  theif  products  and  to  buy  their 
necessities. 

Resolved  that  agricultural  education  should  be  intro- 
duced into  all  country  schools. 

WHERE   TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Bailey,  The  Country  Life  Movement. 
Waugh,  Rural  Improvement. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  133 

Coulter,  Co-operation  Among  Farmers. 

Benson  and  Betts,  Agriculture. 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 

Chap.  XVII  "American  Agriculture." 

Chap.  XVIII  "Soil  Fertility." 

WHERE   TO   WRITE   FOR    FURTHER   INFORMA- 
TION 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
State  College  of  Agriculture. 
State  Experiment  .Station. 
County  Agent  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XI 
LENDING  A  HELPING  HAND 

All  persons  who  are  able  to  do  so  are  expected  to 
work  to  earn  their  living.  Each  person  must  gen- 
erally rely  upon  himself  for  the  means  to  live,  and  to 
be  clothed  and  sheltered.  There  is  no  place  for  the 
person  who  is  able-bodied  and  does  not  support  him- 
self. Society  expects  every  one  to  do  his  part. 

The  People  Take  Care  of  the  Unfortunate.— There 
are  persons  who,  from  causes  which  they  can  not  help, 
are  not  able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Some  in- 
herit physical  weakness  which  prevents  them  from 
being  self-supporting;  others  because  of  accident  or 
disease  are  not  able  to  work  enough  to  earn  a  living; 
others,  through  misfortune  or  old  age,  are  dependent; 
while  still  others  have  performed  some  service  which 
merits  care  in  their  old  age  or  disability. 

It  is  a  pleasant  thought  that  the  people  are  always 
found  to  be  generous  in  their  treatment  of  all  who 
are  not  able  fully  to  take  care  of  themselves.  While 
each  person  pursues  his  own  selfish  ends,  all  are 
humane  enough  to  lend  a  helping  hand.  Everywhere 
it  is  common  among  us  to  help  others  in  distress,  and 
the  amount  of  kindly  service  given  by  generous  neigh- 
bors and  friends  to  the  needy  is  a  fine  testimonial  that 

134 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  135 

we  are  really  a  neighborly  lot  of  people.  As  indi- 
viduals, we  do  much;  but  as  a  body  of  people,  organ- 
ized through  government,  we  should  aim  to  lessen 
distress  of  all  kinds  and  to  help  all  to  better  things, 
and  to  enable  people  in  distress  to  help  themselves 
to  get  a  new  start  in  life. 

Means  of  Caring  for  the  Unfortunate. — The  people 
maintain  many  kinds  of  work  to  care  for  the  weak 
and  unfortunate.  Whereas,  formerly,  a  cruel  world 
left  many  to  suffer,  now  almost  everywhere  in  this 
country  means  are  provided  to  care  for  the  weak  and 
to  lend  encouragement  and  help  to  those  who  may 
not  be  able  to  help  themselves. 

Chief  among  the  things  which  are  provided  are: 

Special  care  and  protection  for  children. 
Homes,  schools  and  asylums  for  the  afflicted 
such  as  the  blind,  deaf,  insane  and  feeble- 
minded. 

Hospitals  for  the  sick  and  injured. 
Pensions  for  those  who  have  done  some  good 

service. 
Insurance  against  old  age,  sickness,  accident 

and  unemployment. 
Poor  relief,  outside  of  institutions. 

Care  and  Protection  of  Children. — The  work  done 
for  the  care  and  protection  of  children  is  the  finest 
charitable  work  performed.  It  should  be  extended 
in  every  way  to  make  sure  that  every  child  has  a 
chance  to  grow  up  strong  and  healthy  and  with  an 


136  OUR  AMERICA 

education  which  will  enable  him  to  succeed.  When 
all  children  are  properly  cared  for  and  protected, 
there  will  be  far  less  need  for  help  in  later  life. 

The  ways  in  which  progressive  states  and  cities 
have  begun  to  care  for  children  are  numerous. 

Many  states  have  laws  requiring  'that  every  baby's 
eyes  must  be  treated  at  birth  to  prevent  blindness. 
Probably  thousands  of  persons  who  are  now  blind 
would  not  have  been  blind  if  that  had  been  the  law 
in  all  states  years  ago.  These  new  laws  are  saving 
thousands  from  future  blindness. 

When  children  go  to  school,  they  are  in  many 
places  under  constant  care  of  physicians  and  nurses. 
Diseases  and  defects  which  might  be  very  injurious, 
if  left  alone,  are  discovered  and  prevented.  Thus, 
many  are  saved  from  being  blind,  deaf  and  diseased. 
The  children  are  taught  how  to  take  care  of  their 
eyes,  ears  and  teeth.  They  are  thus  given  a  better 
opportunity  to  grow  up  well  and  strong,  and  thus 
to  become  good  citizens. 

Extra  care  is  taken  to  make  sure  that  the  milk  sup- 
ply furnished  in  the  cities  is  fit  for  the  feeding  of 
babies.  An  effort  is  made  in  every  city  to  see  that 
milk  is  pure.  The  process  of  pasteurization  is  re- 
sorted to  and  sometimes  required.  Pasteurization  is 
a  process  of  heating  milk  to  a  certain  temperature 
which  destroys  all  disease  germs.  The  number  of 
babies  saved  by  the  pure  milk  work  is  enormous,  but 
greater  care  everywhere  would  save  thousands  more. 

When  children  leave  the  school  to  go  to  work,  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  137 

community  care  goes  along  wkh  them.  In  almost 
every  state,  laws  have  been  passed  to  prohibit  child 
labor  before  the  child  is  fourteen  years  of  age.  In 
several  states  the  limit  is  sixteen  years.  These  laws 
simply  recognize  that  if  a  child  goes  to  work  too  early 
he  weakens  his  body,  fails  to  get  an  education,  and 
prevents  his  own  later  success.  Extra  care  is  taken 
under  the  laws  to  prevent  children  from  working 
around  dangerous  machinery  and  in  insanitary  and 
immoral  places. 

Orphan  and  dependent  children  are  cared  for  by 
the  states  and  cities.  More  and  more,  the  effort  is 
made  to  find  homes  for  such  children.  In  every  state, 
there  are  private  or  public  organizations  engaged  in 
finding  homes  for  children.  It  means  a  great  deal 
to  the  orphan  child  to  be  placed  in  a  good  home 
and  many  kind  people  are  made  glad  by  the  adoption 
of  some  homeless  child. 

Not  only  are  children  cared  for  and  protected  by 
the  community  when  they  are  homeless,  but  the  peo- 
ple in  many  communities  see  that  a  child  is  not  per- 
mitted to  live  under  conditions  which  are  harmful. 
If  parents  or  guardians  are  shiftless,  drunken  or 
cruel,  the  people,  through  the  juvenile  court,  step  in 
and  take  the  child  away  after  proving  that  the  par- 
ents are  not  fit  to  rear  the  child  properly. 

The  duty  of  the  community  to  its  children  is  thus 
enforced  in  many  ways.  Love  for  little  children  and 
pain  at  their  distress  prompt  many  good  deeds;  but 
the  people  see  in  this  work  a  great  advantage  for  the 


138  OUR  AMERICA 

future  of  their  children.  A  healthy  happy  child  has 
a  good  chance  of  becoming  a  helpful  law-abiding 
citizen. 

Homes  and  Hospitals  for  the  Afflicted. — There  was 
a  time  when  every  person  who  was  unable  to  sup- 
port himself  was  sent  to  the  local  poor  house.  The 
blind,  insane,  feeble-minded,  epileptic,  consumptive 
and  other  diseased  persons  were  kept  together.  Per- 
haps there  are  communities  where  this  is  still  the 
case,  but  it  is  hoped  that  they  are  few.  Enlightened 
communities  have  long  recognized  that  cases  of  in- 
sanity, feeble-mindedness,  epilepsy  and  consumption 
need  special  treatment  and  they  have  established 
special  institutions  for  each  of  these  classes  of  unfor- 
tunates. Nearly  every  state  has  its  state  insane 
hospitals  where  the  best  care  is  given  to  the  mentally 
sick  people.  Many  states  have  epileptic  hospitals  and 
tuberculosis  hospitals  for  the  care  and  treatment  of 
patients.  Many  have  provided  homes  and  schools  for 
the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb  where  special  care  is  given, 
and  simple  means  of  livelihood  are  taught.  There 
are  also  many  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded  and 
asylums  for  the  treatment  of  drunkenness.  The 
poor  houses  still  exist  as  local  institutions.  They 
care  for  the  old  and  needy,  but  they  are  becoming 
more  homelike  in  their  methods  and  the  name  "Old 
People's  Home"  is  taking  the  place  of  the  unhappy 
term  "Poor  House." 

Care  of  the  Sick  and  Injured. — Many  communities 
care  for  their  sick  and  injured  by  means  of  local  hos- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  139 

pitals.  Private  philanthropy  has  done  a  great  deal  to 
relieve  distress.  Church  organizations  and  philan- 
thropists have  established  hospitals  and  medical  dis- 
pensaries and  have  often  done  the  work  which  the 
Community  would  otherwise  have  to  do.  Every  city 
of  any  considerable  size  now  has  its  hospital  support- 
ed by  charitable  people  or  by  the  city.  Wherever  pri- 
vate charity  does  not  provide  for  hospitals,  the  cities 
should.  Such  institutions  help  all  persons.  The  rich 
and  the  poor  get  care  which  would  otherwise  be  im- 
possible and  since  health  is  so  great  a  public  concern 
every  means  of  promoting  it  should  be  provided. 
Everywhere,  the  tendency  is  to  do  more  than  merely 
treat  the  cases  as  they  come.  Home  nursing  is  being 
organized  through  a  system  of  following  up  cases  to 
prevent  the  return  of  the  disease. 

Temporary  Care  and  Help. — If  all  of  the  means  of 
ending  a  helping  hand  described  above  were  put  into 
force,  there  would  be.  few  cases  left  of  distress  which 
would  need  relief.  At  present,  however,  there  are 
many  cases  which  need  temporary  care.  Various 
ways  are  provided  to  help  people  in  trouble.  Since 
we  have  no  scheme  of  sickness  and  unemployment 
insurance  in  this  country  it  happens  that  there  are 
many  instances  where  people  must  be  helped  directly. 
Private  charities  do  a  great  deal  and  the  charity 
organization  societies  in  the  larger  cities  seek  out  the 
worthy  cases  for  relief.  There  are  left  many  cases 
which  the  township  or  county  poor  officers  have  to 
take  care  of  by  giving  food,  clothing  or  shelter.  The 


140  OUR  AMERICA 

danger  in  all  charity  work  is  that  unworthy  persons, 
who  are  able  to  support  themselves,  will  be  aided. 
And  it  takes  expert  and  trained  workers  to  prevent 
fraud. 

In  times  of  serious  accidents,  floods,  epidemics,  fires 
and  other  calamities  all  the  agencies,  private  and  pub- 
lic, are  strained  to  give  immediate  relief.  These  are 
times  which  bring  out  the  better  side  of  men.  Un- 
selfish aid  at  such  times  shows  a  fine  spirit.  In  times 
of  great  disaster  the  American  Red  Cross  is  usually 
called  upon  to  take  charge  of  the  relief  work.  The 
wonderful  work  of  this  organization  should  be  famil- 
iar to  all. 

A  favorite  form  of  relief  is  the  municipal  lodging 
house  where  men  and  women  may  get  a  meal  or  a 
bed  for  a  small  sum  which  may  be  paid  in  work. 
Where  such  an  institution  exists,  no  worthy  person 
needs  to  suffer. 

Pensions. — Pensions  should  hardly  be  classed 
among  charities,  for  the  idea  of  a  pension  is  that  it  is 
a  payment  for  some  good  service  performed.  The 
most  familiar  type  of  pension  is  that  for  soldiers  and 
sailors  who  fought  in  our  wars.  The  federal  gov- 
ernment pays  pensions  to  its  soldiers  and  sailors  and 
their  dependent  wives  and  children.  Many  of  the 
southern  states  likewise  pay  pensions  to  the  soldiers 
who  fought  on  the  side  of  the  South  in  the  Civil  War. 

Nearly  every  large  city  pensions  its  policemen  and 
firemen  when  they  are  disabled  or  after  long  service. 
The  policemen  and  firemen  risk  their  lives  in  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  141 

service  of  the  community,  and  they  are  entitled  to  a 
reward  from  the  community.  Men  are  by  this  means 
encouraged  to  enter  these  hazardous  employments, 
and  the  community  has  this  honorable  way  of  treat- 
ing its  faithful  servants  when  they  are  not  able  to  do 
regular  work.  Usually  the  allowance  is  about  half 
the  regular  pay  but  a  part  of  this  is  generally  made 
up  from  payments  made  each  month  to  the  fund  by 
the  policemen  and  firemen. 

Teachers'  pensions  are  also  provided  quite  gen- 
erally in  this  country  by  the  states  and  cities.  Men 
and  women  who  devote  long  years  in  the  cause  of 
education  at  low  wages,  are  entitled  to  special  con- 
sideration. The  fund  is  made  up  by  the  teachers 
with  the  assistance  of  the  city  and  of  the  state  in 
cases  where  state  wide  pension  systems  exist.  Thus, 
after  long  service,  teachers  may  retire  on  a  pension 
which  is  usually  high  enough  to  provide  for  them. 
By  this  means,  too,  instead  of  discharging  them,  the 
cities  are  able  to  retire  teachers  who  are  no  longer 
capable  on  account  of  age  or  disability  to  do  their 
work. 

In  the  last  few  years,  mothers'  pensions,  have  be- 
come popular  and  nearly  all  the  states  now  have 
mothers'  pension  laws  under  which  worthy  mothers 
whose  husbands  have  died  or  mothers  who  have  been 
deserted  are  given  a  certain  amount  each  week  to 
help  them  care  for  their  children.  By  this  method 
the  mother  is  paid  by  the  pension  to  take  care  of  the 
children.  It  is  far  better  to  keep  the  family  together 


142  OUR  AMERICA 

in  this  way  under  the  care  of  the  mother  than  to  have 
it  broken  up  on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  mother 
to  support  the  children  and  care  for  them  herself. 
In  all  cases  it  is  customary  to  grant  such  a  pension 
only  after  it  is  shown  that  the  mother  is  capable  and 
worthy  of  trust.  Fraud  is  in  that  way  prevented. 

Social  Insurance. — There  are  some  misfortunes 
which  are  bound  to  come  and  others  which  may  come 
to  all  of  us.  We  guard  against  them  as  best  we  can, 
but  not  all  succeed  in  being  prepared  when  they  do 
come.  Every  one  grows  old.  Some  are  able  to  save 
enough  to  care  for  themselves  in  their  old  age  and 
others  have  relatives  and  friends  to  care  for  them. 
Many  have  not  been  able  to  save  and  have  no  means 
of  support.  After  a  worthy  life,  they  may  be  de- 
pendent upon  charity. 

Likewise  in  the  case  of  sickness  or  accident  or 
unemployment,  some  are  prepared  while  others  are 
not.  The  blow  comes  and  distress  follows.  The 
remedy  for  such  conditions  is  a  scheme  of  insurance 
against  old  age,  sickness,  accident  and  unemployment 
whereby  each  person  contributes  during  his  working 
days  and  is  insured  against  want  in  old  age,  sickness 
and  accident  or  when  he  is  out  of  work.  By  this 
means,  each  is  helped,  by  all,  to  bear  the  extra  bur- 
dens. Almost  everywhere  in  the  countries  of  Europe 
and  two-thirds  of  the  states  of  this  country,  laborers 
are  insured  against  accidents.  When  the  same  sys- 
tem is  applied  to  the  other  calamities  of  life  every 
person  may  feel  more  secure  about  his  future.  Thrifty 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  143 

people  are  providing  for  themselves  by  insurance  but 
all  should  be  prepared  in  this  way  for  calamities. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  are  the  principal  ways  in  which  your  state  and 
community  protect  and  care  for  children? 

Write  all  of  the  reasons  which  justify  extensive  work  in 
protecting  and  caring  for  children. 

What  state  institutions  are  there,  in  your  state,  to  care 
for  defective  people? 

What  are  Ae  advantages  of  state  insane  asylums  over 
local  insane  asylums? 

What  is  the  difference  between  pensions  and  charities? 
Are  mothers'  pensions  a  pension  or  a  charity? 

How  would  you  justify  the  expenditure  of  the  people's 
money  to  help  pay  pensions  to:  (a)  soldiers,  (b)  firemen, 
(c)  policemen  and  (d)  teachers? 

Give  reasons  for  and  against  old  age  pensions. 

Have  there  been  any  recent  times  when  large  numbers 
of  men  were  unemployed  and  could  not  find  work? 
What  was  done  to  relieve  the  situation?  What  would 
you  suggest  as  a  means  of  handling  such  situations? 

Is  it  advisable  to  feed  tramps  who  ask  for  a  meal? 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  means  of  helping  the  unfortunate 
in  your  community. 

What  are  the  provisions  of  the  law  relating  to  child  labor 
in  your  state? 

Find  whether  your  state  or  city  has  a  teachers'  pension 
law.  What  are  its  provisions? 

Does  your  city  give  pensions  to  policemen  and  firemen? 
Give  an  outline  of  the  provisions  for  each. 

Charity  organization  societies  in  cities  spend  a  great  deal 
of  time  investigating  cases  before  relief  is  given.  Show 
why  this  is  the  best  polcy. 

What  should  be  the  chief  aim  of  charitable  work? 


144  OUR  AMERICA 

QUESTIONS    FOR   DEBATE 

Resolved  that  provisions  should  be  made  for  insurance 
against  old  age. 

Resolved  that  young  people  should  not  be  allowed  to 
work  in  factories,  shops  and  stores  until  they  are  eigh- 
teen years  of  age  unless  the  employment  in  which  they 
engage  has  been  approved  by  competent  public  authori- 
ties. 

WHERE    TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION   » 

Warner,  American  Chanties. 
Seager,  Social  Insurance. 
Davis,  Field  of  Social  Service. 
Debaters'   Handbook,  Mothers'  Pensions. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Compulsory  Insurance. 


WHERE   TO   WRITE   FOR   FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State  Board  of  Charities  or  similar  board. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation. 

U.  S.  Children's  Bureau. 

American  National  Red  Cross. 

National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CONSERVATION 

In  very  recent  years,  we  have  come  to  see  that 
land,  minerals,  waters,  forests  and  other  natural  re- 
sources are  limited.  In  earlier  times,  no  effort  was 
made  to  save  them  for  there  appeared  to  be  more 
than  all  could  possibly  use.  The  discovery  that  the 
demands  of  increased  population  and  enormous 
waste  were  rapidly  exhausting  our  stocks  turned 
attention  sharply  to  the  question  of  conservation 
which  means  saving  for  wise  use. 

The  Governors'  Conference  in  1908. — The  govern- 
ors of  all  of  the  states  n.?t  with  the  president  at 
Washington  in  May,  1908,  to  consider  this  important 
matter  of  conservation.  From  that  date,  the  idea  of 
saving  spread  over  the  country  and  nearly  every 
state  created  a  special  commission  to  study  the  sub- 
ject and  to  point  out  ways  to  save  the  natural  re- 
sources. 

The  governors  said  in  their  resolutions,  "We  de- 
clare the  conviction  that  the  great  prosperity  of  our 
country  rests  upon  the  abundant  resources  of  the 
land  chosen  by  our  forefathers  for  their  homes. 

"We  look  upon  these  resources  as  a  heritage  to 
be  made  use  of  in  establishing  and  promoting  the 

145 


146  OUR  AMERICA 

comfort,  prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  Ameri- 
can people  but  not  to  be  wasted,  or  needlessly  de- 
stroyed. 

"These  natural  resources  include  the  land  on  which 
we  live  and  which  yields  our  food;  the  living  waters 
which  fertilize  the  soil,  supply  power,  and  form  great 
avenues  of  commerce;  the  forests  which  yield  the 
materials  for  our  homes,  prevent  erosion  of  the  soil 
and  conserve  the  navigation  and  other  uses  of  the 
streams;  and  the  minerals  which  form  the  basis  of 
our  industrial  life  and  supply  us  with  heat,  light  and 
power. 

"We  agree  that  the  land  should  be  so  used  that 
erosion  and  soil  wash  shall  cease;  and  that  there 
should  be  reclamation  of  arid  and  semi-arid  regions 
by  means  of  irrigation,  and  of  swamp  and  overflowed 
regions  by  means  of  drainage;  that  the  waters  should 
be  so  conserved  and  used  as  to  promote  navigation, 
to  enable  the  arid  regions  to  be  reclaimed  by  irriga- 
tion, and  to  develop  power  in  the  interests  of  the 
people;  that  the  forests  which  regulate  our  rivers, 
support  our  industries,  and  promote  the  fertility  and 
productiveness  of  the  soil  should  be  preserved;  that 
the  minerals  found,  so  abundantly,  beneath  the  sur- 
face should  be  so  used  as  to  prolong  their 'utility; 
that  the  beauty,  healthfulness,  and  habitability  of  our 
country  should  be  preserved  and'  increased;  that 
sources  of  national  wealth  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people,  and  that  monopoly  thereof  should  not  be 
tolerated." 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  147 

Two  Ways  to  Save. — There  are  two  ways  of  pre- 
venting waste : 

By  educating  the  people  to  the  evil  effects  of  waste 
and  by  methods  of  preventing  waste. 

By  joint  action  of  the  people  through  law  to  pre- 
vent wasteful  things  from  being  done. 

The  government  of  the  nation,  state  and  local  com- 
munities are  all  taking  steps  in  both  of  these  direc- 
tions to  prevent  waste.  But  a  very  great  amount  of 
work  needs  to  be  done  and  thus  far,  only  beginnings 
have  been  made. 

Minerals. — The  conservation  of  mineral  resources 
is  especially  important  because  there  is  a  limited  sup- 
ply and  when  that  is  gone,  there  is  no  more  to  be  had. 
At  the  present  increase  in  output  of  coal  and  iron, 
these  two  most  important  minerals  will  be  nearly  ex- 
hausted in  another  century.  Other  minerals  are  also 
being  used  up  at  an  alarming  rate.  Oil  and  gas  are 
limited  in  quantity  and  the  supply  will  be  finally  ex- 
hausted. We  need,  in  all  cases,  to  see  that  the 
utmost  care  is  taken  to  prevent  waste  and,  also,  to 
see  that  no  person  or  set  of  persons  shall  get  control 
of  the  supply. 

The  federal  government  is  studying  the  problems. 
Through  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  waste 
of  minerals  is  being  investigated  and  valuable  facts 
are  being  worked  out  to  prevent  waste  in  mining, 
and  to  educate  the  people  in  the  use  of  minerals — 
particularly  of  coal.  The  United  States  Geological 
Survey  is  making  a  careful  survey  of  the  existing 


148  OUR  AMERICA 

mineral  resources  and  is  making  valuable  discoveries 
in  the  use  of  minerals. 

The  national  government  is  also  reserving  all 
mineral  rights  in  the  public  lands  which  are  sold  or 
opened  to  settlers.  Hereafter,  when  a  man  buys  land 
from  the  government,  he  buys  it  without  any  rights 
to  the  minerals  which  may  be  found  on  it.  The 
minerals  belong  to  the  people.  If  that  policy  had 
been  in  force  from  the  beginning,  we  would  now  have 
more  than  enough  revenues,  from  that  source,  to 
pay  all  of  the  expense  of  government.  It  is  prob- 
able, that  with  the  development  of  the  West,  the 
government  will  derive  large  revenues  from  the 
mineral  rights  which  they  hold.  The  rich  mineral 
lands  of  Alaska  are  reserved  for  the  whole  people 
by  this  foresighted  policy. 

The  states  are  also  taking  a  hand  in  saving  the 
minerals.  Through  their  conservation  commissions 
and  geological  departments  the  problems  of  the 
states'  resources  are  being  studied.  People  are  be- 
ginning to  urge  that  laws  be  also  enacted  to  require 
that  coal  be  mined  carefully  to  prevent  loss. 

In  the  case  of  other  minerals,  there  is  not  so  much 
loss  in  mining,  but  the  limited  supplies  make  it  neces- 
sary to  find  'substitutes  of  a  more  abundant  kind. 
Experiments  are  conducted,  therefore,  by  many 
government  departments  to  determine  ways  of  using 
cheaper  materials. 

Forests. — The  forests  were  cut  down  in  the  past 
because  the  ground  was  wanted  for  farming  and 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  149 

because  forests  were  not  profitable.  Now,  we  have 
reached  a  time  when  wood  for  lumber  is  getting 
scarce  and  the  need  for  it  is  increasing.  We  find  also 
that  the  destruction  of  the  forests  has  affected  the 
flow  of  the  streams.  Waters  rush  off  from  the  cleared 
lands  and  cause  floods  and  in  dry  seasons  the  flow  is 
almost  stopped,  thus  preventing  the  regular  use  of 
water  power. 

The  United  States  government  maintains  a  Bureau 
of  Forestry  which  studies  forestry  work,  the  means 
of  preserving  forests,  and  the  planting  of  new  for- 
ests. Several  of  the  -states,  also,  have  such  depart- 
ments. They  are  doing  an  excellent  work  for  our 
welfare. 

The  nation  and  the  states  are  also  buying  up  large 
tracts  of  land  as  forest  preserves.  Usually  these  pre- 
serves are  selected  at  the  head  waters  of  streams  to 
preserve  the  flow  of  waters.  The  federal  government 
now  has  sixty-three  million  twenty-one  thousand 
and  seventy-eight  acres  in  such  preserves;  Wiscon- 
sin, four  hundred  thousand;  Michigan,  five  hun- 
dred eighty-nine  thousand;  Minnesota,  one  million 
forty-three  thousand.  Tfiere  is  much  talk  of  the 
need  of  laws  to  regulate  the  cutting  of  timber,  so  as 
to  prevent  unnecessary  waste.  Certainly,  the  people 
ought  to  be  educated  upon  the  subject. 

Nearly  all  states  make  provisions  against  forest 
fires.  Such  fire>s  are  terribly  destructive  and  danger- 
ous. More  than  fifty  million  dollars  are  lost  every 
year  through  forest  fires.  Laws  are  enacted  to  re- 


150  .  OUR  AMERICA 

quire  greater  care  on  railroads  passing  through  for- 
ests, to  prevent  the  danger  from  sparks.  Hunters 
are  restricted  and  persons  are  compelled  to  take 
extra  care  to  put  out  all  fires  lighted.  The  federal 
government  maintains  rangers  whose  duty  it  is  to 
patrol  the  government  forests.  A  fire  is  discovered 
and  by  a  system  of  signals,  help  is  soon  at  hand. 
Several  states  maintain  similar  services  on  their  for- 
est preserves. 

Waters. — The  supply  of  water  is  not  exhaustible, 
but  its  equal  flow  has  been  disturbed  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  forests.  This  has  interfered  seriously 
with  the  development  of  water  power.  The  govern- 
ment, as  we  have  seen,  is  attacking  the  problems 
through  forestry. 

The  purity  of  waters  is  another  concern,  and  strict 
laws  are  made  by  a  few  states  to  prevent  dumping 
sewage  and  other  refuse  which  pollutes  the  waters. 

The  principal  matter  of  interest  for  the  people  con- 
cerning water  is  to  prevent  any  one  from  getting  con- 
trol of  water  or  of  water  power.  We  are  rapidly 
approaching  the  time  when  electricity  generated  by 
water  power  will  take  the*  place  of  the  steam  power 
generated  from  coal.  The  ownership  of  water  power 
is,  therefore,  .important.  The  national  government 
has  recognized  this  and  is  reserving  for  all  the  people 
the  water  power  sites  on  public  lands.  States  are 
taking  similar  action.  Sometimes  we  may  have  vast 
revenues  from  these  water  powers  which  the  people 
own. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  151 

Land. — We  have  already  touched  upon  the  work 
which  the  governments  are  doing  to  help  preserve 
the  soil.  The  lives  of  our  children  depend  upon  the 
work  of  making  soils  more  productive.  Unless  we 
increase  production  per  acre,  we  shall  soon  reach  a 
time  when  not  enough  foodstuffs  will  be  raised  to 
feed  us. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  state  departments  of  agriculture,  the  experiment 
stations,  agricultural  colleges  and  the  vocational 
schools  are  all  attacking  the  problem,  and  the  exten- 
sion divisions  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  the 
county  agents  of  agriculture  are  carrying  the  facts 
to  the  farmer.  We  have  already  discussed  what  this 
means  in  increased  production. 

In  addition,  the  people,  through  their  governments, 
are  taking  positive  steps  to  prevent  any  one  from 
monopolizing  the  supplies  of  fertilizer  materials.  The 
three  elements,  potash,  nitrogen  and  phosphates  are 
necessary  to  plant  life,  and  the  available  supplies  are 
limited.  Scientific  researches  are  showing  new 
sources  of  supply,  but  laws  are  needed  to  prevent  the 
waste  of  these  precious  substances  and  to  prevent 
any  one  from  controlling  them. 

The  United  States  government  has  reclaimed 
many  million  acres  of  land  by  means  of  irrigation. 
Several  western  states  are  doing  similar  work.  We 
have  already  seen  that  there  are  seventy-five  million 
acres  which  can  be  made  extremely  productive  by 
irrigation.  TheKe  are  also  seventy-five  million  acres 


152  OUR  AMERICA 

now  in  swamps  which  could  be  drained  and  made 
into  the  most  fertile  lands.  The  nation  and  the  states 
are  both  working  on  these  problems  and  already  mil- 
lions of  acres  have  been  drained. 

Fish  and  Game. — Every  state  in  the  Union  is  tak- 
ing some  steps  to  preserve  fish  and  game.  They  do 
this  by  laws  which  protect  fish  and  game  and  per- 
mit hunting  and  fishing  only  in  certain  seasons,  and 
by  providing  for  hatching  fish  and  breeding  game  for 
the  purpose  of  restocking  the  streams  and  fields.  If 
it  were  not  for  this  work,  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  fish  and  game  would  no  longer  exist.  The 
federal  government  is  also  taking  a  part  in  doing  the 
same  work.  The  United  States  officials  cooperate 
with  state  officers  and  also  carry  on  an  extensive 
work  on  their  own  account. 

Both  the  states  and  the  nation  have  taken  steps  to 
preserve  the  wild  birds  by  passing  laws  which  pro- 
hibit the  killing  of  such  birds.  In  1913  Congress 
passed  an  act  called  the  Migratory  Bird  Act  which 
prohibits  the  killing  of  certain  birds  known  as  migra- 
tory birds. 

Plant  Diseases. — We  have  already  discussed  at 
length  the  prevention  of  insect  pests,  animal  diseases 
and  weeds.  The  states  do  extensive  work  in  this  re- 
spect through  laws  and  through  officials  who  study 
methods  of  prevention.  There  is  in  nearly  every  state 
an  official  known  as  the  state  entomologist  whose  duty 
it  is  to  study  diseases  of  plants  and  trees.  He  is  also 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  153 

charged  with  the  duty  of  inspecting  nursery  stock  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  plant  and  tree  diseases.  In  many 
states  he  tests  agricultural  seeds.  He  may  quarantine 
against  infected  nursery  stock  from  other  states.  The 
federal  government  is  carrying  on  similar  work  of 
study  and  inspection.  Foreign  nursery  stock  brought 
to  this  country  is  subject  to  federal  inspection.  This 
work  means  the  saving  of  millions  of  dollars  to  the 
people.  Indeed,  if  it  were  not  for  the  work  which 
the  nation  and  states  do  to  prevent  animal  and  plant 
diseases,  insect  pests  and  weeds,  it  is  doubtful  if  we 
could  produce  enough  to  live. 

Smoke. — The  problem  of  smoke  is  usually  thought 
to  be  a  city  problem  because  it  is  there  that  smoke  be- 
comes a  nuisance.  It  is  really  a  problem  in  con- 
servation which  affects  the  whole  country.  An  esti- 
mate has  been  made  that  five  hundred  million  dollars 
are  wasted  every  year  through  smoke.  Smoke  means 
poor  combustion  of  coal..  Ignorance  in  firing  with 
coal  and  poor  furnaces  are  the  causes.  Ways  are 
known  by  which  coal  may  be  almost  perfectly  con- 
sumed without  causing  dense  smoke. 

The  cities  have  been  fighting  this  nuisance  fof 
some  time.  Many  cities  have  smoke  inspectors  who 
enforce  the  laws  requiring  that  factories  shall  not 
permit  dense  black  smoke  to  be  poured  out.  The 
efforts  of  these  inspectors  have  not  been  very  suc- 
cessful, and  it  is  seen  that  the  problem  is  one  of  edu- 
cation. When  people  begin  to  see  that  it  means  a 


154  OUR  AMERICA 

direct  loss  in  the  amount  of  coal  burned,  'laws  will  not 
be  needed  to  compel  the  installing  of  smoke  con- 
sumers. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Write  a  definition  of  the  term  "natural  resources." 

What  would  be  the  effect  if  the  coal  supply  were  ex- 
hausted? 

Name  some  substitutes  for  coal. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "soil  erosion"  ? 

What  example  of  soil  erosion  have  you  seen?  What 
is  the  effect  of  erosion?  How  can  it  be  prevented? 

What  is  the  relation  of  forestry  to  the  water  supply? 

What  work  is  being  done  by  your  state  to  aid  forestry? 

Do  the  owners  of  forests  in  your  community  exercise 
care  in  cutting  and  handling  wood  and  lumber? 

What  is  the  season  for  hunting  different  wild  animals 
and  birds  in  your  county? 

Write  to  your  congressman  at  Washington  and  ask  for 
a  copy  of  the  Federal  Migratory  Bird  Act  and  study  the 
provisions  of  it. 

What  plant  or  tree  diseases  do  you  find  in  your  com- 
munity? What  is  done  to  prevent  them? 

What  insect  pests  do  you  find  in  your  community  and 
what  is  done  to  stop  the  damage  from  them? 

Does  your  city  do  anything  to  save  the  trees  and 
shrubs  in  the  city  from  damage  from  diseases,  insect 
pests  or  other  dangers? 

Is  smoke  a  nuisance  in  your  city  and  what  is  being 
done  to  prevent  it? 

Get  a  copy  of  the  fish  and  game  laws  of  your  state  from 
the  state  fish  and  game  commissioner  or  similar  official. 

What  is  the  importance  of  saving  and  developing  water 
power  ? 

Why  should  the  people  reserve  rights  in  minerals  in  all 
public  lands  which  the  government  sells? 


_ 


Land  Erosion. 


Forest  Fire  Waste 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  155 

Give  reasons  for  the  development  of  state  forest  reser- 
vations. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DEBATE 

Resolved  that  it  should  be  made  unlawful  for  any  per- 
son to  destroy  forest  trees  by  careless  cutting. 

Resolved  that  every  owner  of  land  should  be  required 
to  prevent  erosion  of  soil  by  every  means  available. 

Resolved  that  the  welfare  of  the  country  depends  upon 
conservation  of  natural  resources. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 
Chap.  VI  "Natural  Resources  of  the  U.  S." 
Chap.  VII  "Land  Redemption." 
Chap.  VIII  "Forest  Resources." 
Chap.  IX  "Water  Resources." 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Geological  Department 

(Mineral  Resources). 
State  Geologist  or  Geological  Survey, 

(Mineral  Resources). 
U.  So  Department  of  Agriculture 

(Forestry,  insect  pests,  game). 
State  Entomologist 

(Plant  Diseases  and  Insect  Pests). 
State  Forester  or  Forestry  Board,  if  one  exists. 
National  Conservation  Congress. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
CONTROLLING  BUSINESS 

The  highest  ideal  of  this  country  is  that  all  per- 
sons shall  have  equal  rights  and  that  no  person  shall 
have  any  privileges  which  are  not  given  to  all  on 
equal  terms.  It  is  contrary  to  the  American  spirit 
voiced  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  to  permit 
inequality  of  rights. 

Equality  of  Rights. — In  an  early  chapter  of  this 
book,  it  was  explained  how  the  people  prevent  fraud 
by  the  crafty  and  strong.  Many  things  are  done  for 
the  protection  of  the  innocent  purchaser  of  goods  to 
insure  him  a  fair  deal;  of  the  depositors  in  banks  to 
insure  the  safety  of  their  money;  of  the  purchaser  of 
insurance  to  make  sure  that  losses  will  be  paid;  and 
of  the  investor  in  corporations  against  clever  frauds 
These  acts  have  done  much  to  prevent  losses  and  to 
give  the  people  confidence  in  business. 

Monopoly. — There  are  many  acts  which  take  from 
the  people  unjustly  or  interfere  seriously  with  their 
rights.  The  most  important  of  these  acts  is  that  of 
controlling  the  supply  of  the  people's  necessities  and 
fixing  at  an  unfair  rate,  the  prices  which  they  must 
pay.  This  is  called  monopoly. 

156 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  157 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  monopolies  have 
been  created. 

Men  have  obtained  possession  of  all  or  the  greater 
part  of  the  supply  of  commodities  such  as  crude  oil, 
copper,  coal,  iron  and  meat.  In  a  few  cases,  the 
wheat  and  cotton  supply  have  been  cornered  by  one 
man  or  a  few  men. 

Persons  supplying  or  manufacturing  the  same  arti- 
cles have  entered  into  an  agreement  to  fix  the  price 
of  their  output. 

Competing  concerns  have  sometimes  divided  the 
territory  and  given  a  portion  to  each.  Having  no 
competition,  they  have  charged  whatever  they  could 
force  the  people  to  pay. 

Competing  concerns  have  sometimes  entered  into 
an  agreement  to  put  their  profits  into  a  pool  to  be 
divided  on  a  fixed  basis  thus  killing  competition. 

One  concern  has  bought  its  competitors  and 
thereby  gained  control  of  the  entire  product. 

It  is  plain  that  if  these  practises  were  allowed  to  go 
on,  the  people  would  be  at  the  mercy  of  a  few  men 
who  controlled  their  necessities.  Such  a  condition 
could  not  be  allowed  for  in  effect  it  amounts  to  plain 
robbery,  there  being  no  essential  difference  between 
the  person  who  takes  money  outright  and  the  one 
who  holds  up  the  supply  of  necessities  and  compels 
unfair  payment. 

Where  the  supply  of  raw  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  necessities  is  controlled  by  one  person  or 
group  of  persons  the  monopoly  is  doubly  bad,  be- 


158  OUR  AMERICA 

cause  every  one  is  prevented  from  engaging  in  the 
business  for  lack  of  raw  material. 

Control  of  Monopoly. — Both  the  states  and  the 
nation  have,  in  various  ways,  tried  to  prohibit 
monopoly  and  keep  competition  alive.  Thus  far, 
they  have  not  succeeded  and  the  price  of  many  things 
which  we  must  buy  is  fixed,  not  according  to  their 
value,  but  by  the  arbitrary  will  of  a  few  persons  who 
have  a  monopoly  of  the  product. 

The  federal  government  enacted  the  Sherman 
Anti-Trust  Law  in  1890  prohibiting  monopoly  which 
interfered  with  trade.  This,  of  course,  applied  to 
trade  which  passed  over  state  lines.  But  the  law  has 
never  been  clear  and  therefore  it  has  not  prevented 
monopoly.  Similar  laws  have  been  passed  by  the 
states,  but  the  difficulty  of  stating  clearly  what  is 
meant  and  avoiding  interference  with  honest  trade 
has  made  such  laws  of  little  value. 

Recently  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  was  cre- 
ated by  Congress  to  control  monopoly.  It  is  ex- 
pected from  this  act  that  many  of  the  evils  will  be 
prevented  and  honest  business  given  a  fair  chance. 

Natural  Monopoly. — Another  kind  of  monopoly  is 
called  natural  monopoly.  The  principal  natural 
monopolies  are  the  railroads,  telephone  and  tele- 
graph, street  railways,  water,  gas  and  electric  light 
plants.  These  are  called  natural  monopolies  because, 
in  the  nature  of  the  business,  there  can  be  but  little 
competition.  One  can  readily  see  that  it  would  not 
pay  to  have  two  lines  of  railroad  where  one  would 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  159 

carry  the  traffic,  or  to  have  in  a  city  two  street  rail- 
ways, gas,  electric  light,  water,  telephone  or  other 
companies.  Where  two  such  companies  exist  it  is  at 
a  loss  to  the  public.  But  the  people  can  not  be  left 
at  the  mercy  of  a  single  company  and  the  govern- 
ment is  called  upon  for  protection. 

Regulation  of  Natural  Monoply. — The  attempt  was 
first  made  to  fix  rates  by  law.  This  proved  of  little 
value  because  the  companies  usually  gave  poorer 
service.  The  people  want  good  service  at  a  fair  price. 
They  saw  that  to  fix  the  price  without  fixing  the 
service  gave  no  relief.  For  instance,  it  is  of  no  value 
to  lower  the  price  of  gas  from  one  dollar  to  sixty 
cents  per  thousand  cubic  feet  if  the  number  of  heat 
units  in  the  gas  is  reduced  in  like  proportion.  It  is 
worse  for  the  public  to  have  railroad  fares  fixed  at  two 
cents  if  it  results  in  poor  equipment,  slow  service 
and  a  lack  of  safety. 

Railroad  and  Public  Utility  Commissions. — Seeing 
these  difficulties,  the  states  and  nation  have  created 
commissions  which  are  charged  with  the  duty  of 
seeing  that  just  and  reasonable  service  i§  given  at  a 
just  and  reasonable  price.  The  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  has  power  over  railroads  which  cross 
state  lines.  The  state  railroad  commissions  control 
railroads  within  the  states.  More  than  half  of  the 
states  have  created  public  utility  commissions  to  con- 
trol rates  and  service  of  railroads,  street  railroads, 
gas,  water,  electric  light  and  telephone  and  telegraph 
companies.  These  commissions  investigate  condi- 


160  OUR  AMERICA 

tions  and  fix  rates  and  service  which  are  fair  to  all 
concerned. 

Labor  and  Capital. — There  are  two  main  factors 
in  carrying  on  the  world's  work — labor  and  capital. 
These  two  factors  work  together  in  changing  raw 
materials  into  finished  products.  The  owners  of 
capital  are  the  employers  and  the  great  mass  of  peo- 
ple are  employees.  Capital  gets  its  return  in  profits 
and  labor  gets  its  return  in  \vages.  The  total  returns 
of  industry  are  divided  between  the  two.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  returns  which  labor  and  capital  should 
get  is  a  source  of  constant  trouble.  Labor  naturally 
seeks  higher  wages,  shorter  hours  and  better  condi- 
tions under  which  to  work.  The  granting  of  these 
lowers  the  profits  of  capital. 

Collective  Bargaining. — In  early  times,  wages 
were  fixed  according  to  the  supply  and  demand1. 
This  condition  still  exists  in  many  lines  of  industry 
and  particularly  in  farming.  There  is  usually  a  pre- 
vailing wage  which  is  fixed  by  the  supply  of  farm 
labor.  In  most  industries  which  employ  many  men, 
this  condition  does  not  prevail.  The  bargain  between 
employers  and  employees  is  not  made  by  each  man 
with  the  employer,  but  by  all  of  the  men  acting  to- 
gether with  the  employer.  This  is  called  collective 
bargaining.  Often,  collective  bargaining  consists  in 
an  agreement  between  all  the  employees  in  an  occu- 
pation and  all  of  the  employers  in  that  occupation.' 
Thus  the  coal  miners  of  the  United  States  through 
their  wage  committee  bargain  with  all  the  owners  of 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  161 

the  coal  mines,  through  their  committee — and  fix  a 
schedule  of  wages,  hours  and  conditions  for  a  given 
period  for  all  men  in  the  industry. 

Collective  bargaining  came  about  through  the 
trade  unions  which  have  been  formed  in  many  lines 
of  industry.  The  workers  in  each  trade  have  their 
own  union  and  nearly  all  of  these  unions  are  united 
in  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  Labor  unions 
are  found  principally  in  the  skilled  and  partly  skilled 
trades.  Recently  large  organizations  of  unskilled 
workers  have  been  formed  to  assert  the  rights  of  the 
great  mass  of  unskilled  laborers. 

Strikes. — The  conflict  of  labor  and  capital  over 
wages- and  conditions  of  work  often  results  in  strikes. 
The  men  refuse  to  work  for  the  wages  or  under  the 
conditions  offered  by  the  employers  and  the  employ- 
ers refuse  to  meet  the  conditions  demanded  by  the 
workers.  The  men  go  on  a  strike,  i.  e.,  refuse  to 
work  and  the  contest  continues  until  one  side  or  the 
other  gives  in  or  a  compromise  is  reached.  In  the 
meantime  the  public,  which  is  dependent  on  the  in- 
dustry, suffers.  The  employers  lose  their  trade  and 
profits  and  the  employees  their  wages.  Strikes  are 
often  accompanied  by  violence  and  bloodshed,  par- 
ticularly when  the  employers  attempt  to  put  new 
men  at  work  in  place  of  the  strikers. 

A  strike  of  railroad  or  street  railway  men  usually 
results  in  serious  inconvenience  and  loss  to  the  public. 
Ordinary  business  can  not  be  conducted  when  the 
arteries  of  travel  are  stopped.  For  that  reason,  the 


162  OUR  AMERICA 

public  takes  greater  interest  in  means  for  settling 
strikes  on  public  utilities  than  they  do  where 
the  strike  does  not  affect  them  so  seriously.  We 
shall  see  later  how  special  means  are  provided  to 
settle  such  strikes.  There  are  other  strikes  no  less 
harmful  to  the  public,  such  as  a  strike  of  coal  miners, 
teamsters,  or  freight  handlers.  A  strike  of  the  coal 
miners  means  the  tying  up  of  one  of  the  people's 
necessities.  Serious  hardships  result  from  interfer- 
ence in  the  regular  supply  of  coal.  The  work  of  a 
city  may  be  almost  wholly  tied  up  by  a  strike  of 
teamsters  and  a  strike  of  freight  handlers,  particu- 
larly the  freight  handlers  on  the  docks — the  long- 
shoremen— cripples  business  seriously  because  it 
stops  the  progress  of  transportation  and  exchange. 

The  results  of  strikes  are  so  serious  to  all  con- 
cerned that  steps  have  been  taken  to  prevent  them 
from  occurring  and  to  settle  those  which  do  occur. 
Employers  and  employees  in  many  lines  of  industry 
are  preventing  strikes  by  means  of  trade  agreements 
under  which  all  disputed  points  are  settled  by  agree- 
ment or  adjusted  peaceably. 

Profit  Sharing. — The  scheme  of  profit  sharing  is 
also  used  to  keep  men  satisfied.  Under  this  plan,  the 
men  are  paid  their  regular  wages  and  are  given  a  per- 
centage of  the  profits.  All  have  an  interest,  there- 
fore, in  working  together  under  this  plan. 

Arbitration  and  Conciliation. — The  people  also 
take  a  hand  in  serious  labor  troubles  through  boards 
of  arbitration  and  conciliation.  The  best  known  of 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  163 

these  plans  for  preventing  strikes  in  this  country  is 
the  federal  law  of  1913  which  provides  for  settling 
railway  strikes.  Under  this  plan,  when  trouble  oc- 
curs the  commissioner  of  mediation  and  concilia- 
tion confers  with  both  sides  and  tries  to  get  them  to 
come  to  an  agreement.  If  he  fails  in  that,  he  tries  to 
get  the  matter  presented  to  a  board  of  arbitration 
consisting  of  two  from  each  side  and  a  fifth  appointed 
by  the  first  four.  If  he  fails  to  get  an  agreement  to 
arbitrate  he  investigates  the  causes  thoroughly  and 
gives  the  facts  to  the  public. 

Many  of  the  states  have  adopted  laws  of  a  similar 
kind,  but  they  have  not  been  successful  to  a  great 
degree  because  of  the  difficulty  of  settling  disputes 
after  a  quarrel  has  been  started.  The  most  success- 
ful way  to  handle  matters  of  this  character  is  to  pre- 
vent the  causes,  and  this  can  be  done  by  creating  a 
fairer  understanding  between  employers  and  em- 
ployees. Mutual  agreement  is  more  effective  than 
law.  Such  agreement  can  come  only  when  each 
understands  the  other,  and  the  spirit  of  the  fair  deal 
prevails. 

Regulation  of  Labor  Conditions. — We  have  seen 
that  through  agreement  in  many  occupations  the 
wages,  hours  of  labor  and  the  conditions  of  labor  are 
fixed  by  collective  bargaining.  What  the  men  in 
these  occupations  gain  for  themselves,  government 
is  called  upon  to  give  to  others.  Hours  of  work  in 
unhealthful  or  dangerous  occupations  are  often  fixed 
by  law  to  protect  the  workers  and  the  public.  Laws 


164  OUR  AMERICA 

have  been  passed  in  several  states  limiting  the  hours 
which  women  may  work  in  industry,  to  eight  or  nine. 
Many  people  advocate  an  eight  hour  day  for  all 
workers. 

Minimum  Wages. — In  general,  the  matter  of  wages 
has  been  left  to  agreement  between  employers  and 
employees.  Recently,  however,  there  is  a  movement 
which  seeks  to  fix  a  minimum  wage  which  must  be 
paid  to  workers.  The  idea  has  been  put  into  opera- 
tion in  a  number  of  states  by  the  creation  of  boards 
with  power  to  determine  what  is  a  fair  minimum 
wage  for  women  workers  and  compel  its  payment. 
Some  foreign  countries  have  such  laws  applying  to 
all  workers.  The  theory  of  such  laws  is  that  an  in- 
dustry which  can  not  pay  its  employees  a  wage  high 
enough  to  enable  them  to  live  on  is  not  fit  to  exist. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  monopoly?  Natural 
monopoly  ? 

In  what  ways  do  people  obtain  a  monopoly  of  certain 
products  ? 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  prevent  monopoly? 

Why  is  it  not  good  policy  to  have  two  railroads  between 
two  points  when  one  railroad  would  carry  the  traffic? 

Why  is  it  best  to  have  only  one  water  company  in  a  city  ? 
Gas  company?  Street  railway  company? 

Show  the  need  for  some  authority  to  regulate  rates  when 
a  company  has  a  monopoly  of  any  necessity. 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  regulate  service  as  well  as  rates? 

In  comparing  rates  charged  for  gas,  electric  light,  water 
and  street  railway  in  different  cities,  what  conditions  should 
be  taken  into  consideration? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  165 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  regulate  railroal  rates?  Is  it  fair 
to  fix  a  rate  of  two  cents  a  mile  for  passenger  service  on 
all  railroads  in  a  state? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  collective  bargaining? 

Show  why  collective  bargaining  is  necessary  if  the  work- 
ers are  to  get  fair  wages. 

What  are  the  losses  from  strikes  to  the  employer?  To 
the  employee?  To  the  public? 

Why  are  the  people  justified  in  taking  action  to  prevent 
and  to  end  strikes? 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  strikes  you  have  read  about  or  know 
about  and  show  how  each  affected  the  welfare  of  the  people. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "minimum  wage"? 

Should  the  government  fix  the  price  of  products  which 
the  people  buy?  Give  reasons. 

Should  the  government  fix  the  quality  of  goods  which 
people  purchase? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  a  minimum  wage  should  be  fixed  by  law 
for  all  workers. 

Resolved  that  workers  should  not  be  employed  to  work 
regularly  more  than  eight  hours  a  day. 

Resolved  that  it  is  better  for  the  government  to  own  and 
operate  railroads  and  public  utilities  than  to  regulate  the 
rates  and  service. 

WHERE    TO    LOOK    FOR    FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 
Chap.  XXVII  "Price  and  Monopoly." 
Chap.  XXV  "Regulation  of  Transportation." 
Chap.  XXII  "Business  Organization." 
Chap.  XXXVIII  "Experiments  of  Employers." 
Chap.  XXXIX  "Experiments  of  Employees." 

Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics. 
Chap.  XIX  "The  Regulation  of  Commerce." 
Chap.  XXXII  "Social  and  Economic  Legislation." 


166  OUR  AMERKTA 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Trade  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 

State  Railroad  Commission  or  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion. 

American  Association  for  Labor  Legislation. 

American  Federation  of  Labor  (for  labor's  side). 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers  (for  the  employ- 
ers* side). 


CHAPTER  XIV 
KEEPING  THE  RECORDS 

The  keeping  of  records  is  a  very  important  func- 
tion of  the  various  governments,  local,  state  and 
national,  which  do  our  business.  These  records  are 
of  three  main  kinds: 

Records  of  the  official  acts  of  the  public  officers. 

Records  of  private  transactions  which  are  recorded 
for  protection,  such  as  deeds  to  property,  articles  of 
incorporation  of  corporations. 

Records  and  facts  about  the  people  and  their 
work,  such  as  births,  deaths  and  marriage's,  census 
of  population,  industries,  etc. 

Importance  of  Official  Records. — The  importance 
of  keeping  the  official  records  of  the  acts  of  public 
officers  has  always  been  clear,  and  ample  care  is 
taken,  everywhere,  to  preserve  them.  Each  office 
keeps  the  documents  and  other  records  of  its  work 
and  preserves  them.  There  is,  in  every  township, 
county,  city,  state  and  in  the  nation,  one  officer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  keep  the  official  documents  under  which 
we  are  working. 

United  States  Records. — The  secretary  of  state  of 
the  United  States  is  the  official  who  has  charge  of  the 
official  acts  of  the  national  government.  In  his  de- 

167 


168  OUR  AMERICA 

partment  are  preserved  the  official  copies  of  the 
laws  passed  by  Congress,  the  treaties  made  with 
foreign  countries,  the  proclamations  of  the  president, 
the  correspondence  with  foreign  countries,  the  agree- 
ments with  the  Indian  tribes  and  many  similar  docu- 
ments. These  must  be  carefully  guarded  to  prevent 
theft,  mutilation  and  alterations.  Their  care  is  to 
the  nation  what  the  care  of  notes,  contracts  and  in- 
surance policies  is  to  the  individual. 

State  Records. — In  the  states,  the  secretary  of 
state  is  the  official  having  charge  of  the  state  records. 
In  his  office  are  filed  and  preserved  the  original 
copies  of  the  laws  passed  by  the  legislature,  the  pro- 
clamations of  the  governor  and  agreements  to  which 
the  state  is  a  party. 

Local  Records. — The  official  records  of  the  counties 
are  preserved  by  the  clerk  of  the  county,  known,  gen- 
erally, as  the  county  clerk.  In  addition  to  the 
official  acts  of  the  county,  the  county  clerk  generally 
keeps  the  court  records  which  are  numerous  and  im- 
portant. In  the  state  and  nation  these  duties  per- 
taining to  court  records  are  performed  by  special 
officers  known  as  clerks  of  the  courts. 

The  city  records  are  kept  by  the  city  clerk,  the 
town  records  by  the  town  clerk,  and  the  township 
records  by  the  township  clerk  or  township  trustee. 

Records  of  Private  Matters. — The  keeping  of  rec- 
ords of  private  transactions  constitutes  an  important 
part  of  the  record  keeping  by  the  government.  The 
most  important  is  the  recording  of  deeds  to  property, 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  169 

mortgages  upon  property,  and  similar  documents.  A 
special  officer  is  provided  in  each  county,  known 
usually  as  the  county  recorder,  whose  function  it  is 
to  record  deeds,  mortgages  and  similar  papers.  This 
work  is  done  for  protection  against  fraud  and  against 
loss  of  documents.  All  people  are  thus  benefited. 
This  branch  of  the  government  service  is  the  most 
used  of  any  because  almost  every  one  at  some  time 
has  something  to  do  with  the  recording  of  some 
document  relating  to  property. 

Deeds  and  Mortgage  Records. — The  recording  of 
deeds  and  mortgages  is  done  usually  by  writing  out 
the  documents  in  full  in  bound  record  books  which 
are  carefully  numbered  and  indexed.  These  records 
are  open  to  the  public.  They  serve  to  show  owner- 
ship. Whenever  property  is  sold,  the  buyer  can 
search  the  records  and  find  exact  facts  about  the 
ownership  of  the  property  and  any  mortgages  or 
claims  against  the  property.  If  it  were  not  for  these 
records,  no  one  could  safely  buy  property  because  he 
could  not  find  out  for  certain  what  rights  the  seller 
had  in  the  property  or  what  claims  there  might  be 
against  it.  But  the  buyer  must  run  his  own  risk  if 
he  makes  a  mistake  in  searching  the  record. 

Needed  Changes  in  Recording  Deeds  and  Mort- 
gages.— The  vast  amount  of  work  necessary  to  keep 
these  records,  and  the  great  cost  in  searching  the 
record  every  time  a  piece  of  property  changes  hands, 
besides  the  risk  incurred,  has  caused  an  attempt  at 
reform  to  make  the  record  keeping  easier  and  still 


170  OUR  AMERICA 

make  it  certain  and  safe.  A  number  of  states  have 
adopted  the  Torrens  system  of  land  records  by  which 
a  simpler  system  of  recording  is  provided. 

The  Torrens  System. — The  method  used  is  as  fol- 
lows: Whenever  a  landowner  desires  to  register 
the  title  to  a  piece  of  land  he  makes  application  to 
the  registrar  and  deposits  his  deed  and  other  papers. 
The  registrar  causes  an  examination  of  the  title  to  be 
made,  and  if  the  '  title  of  the  owner  is  clear,  the 
registrar,  after  public  notice,  issues  a  certificate  to 
the  owner  which  briefly  describes  the  property  and 
the  nature  of  the  holder's  title.  This  certificate 
guarantees  the  title  to  the  owner.  A  copy  of  the 
certificate  is  kept  in  the  office.  Thereafter  no  one 
need  go  back  of  this  guarantee  to  prove  his  title. 
When  the  property  is  sold,  a  statement  is  made  out 
in  proper  form,  and  when  the  transfer  has  been  noted 
on  the  recorder's  books  and  on  the  certificate,  the 
new  owner  has  the  title  to  the  property  with  the 
government  guarantee.  Mortgages  against  the  prop- 
erty are  noted  on  the  certificate.  Thus  all  the  search 
that  is  needed  is  in  one  book  in  the  recorder's  office. 
This  method  results  in  greater  safety  of  title  and 
saves  very  great  expense  in  proving  ownership.  Real 
estate  becomes  a  much  better  investment  when  there 
are  no  risks  of  titles. 

Records  of  Incorporation. — The  government  also 
keeps  a  record  of  many  other  transactions  in  cases 
where  the  public  has  a  right  to  know  the  facts  in 
order  to  protect  themselves.  The  records  of  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  171 

forming  of  corporations  are  always  filed  in  the  office 
of  the  secretary  of  state  in  each  state.  This  is  an 
important  matter  because  of  the  great  amount  of 
business  which  is  now  done  by  corporations.  The 
records  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  make 
it  possible  for  any  person  to  obtain  information  about 
any  company  in  which  he  might  be  interested.  In 
many  states,  every  company  must  file  full  information 
about  its  work  and  be  approved  by  some  state  official. 
This  tends  to  prevent  the  so-called  "blue  sky"  com- 
panies, which  sometimes  defraud  the  people.  If  full 
reports  were  required  frequently  and  kept  on  record, 
the  people  would  be  further  protected  by  being  able 
to  get  information  at  any  time  about  the  financial 
standing  of  companies. 

Records  Prevent  Fraud. — These  examples  serve 
to  show  what  the  government  does  to  safeguard  the 
people  by  having  an  official  record  of  transactions 
about  which  they  ought  to  be  able  to  learn.  All  such 
records  prevent  fraud  and  give  the  people  more  cer- 
tainty in  their  dealings.  Without  the  recording  of 
deeds,  a  man  could  never  be  certain  of  the  title  to  his 
real  estate  and  without  the  record  of  corporations 
many  people  would  be  misled  by  fictitious  corpora- 
tions. Without  records  of  similar  things  the  people 
would  too  often  be  at  the  mercy  of  clever  schemers. 

Records  of  Facts  About  the  People. — The  keeping 
of  records  and  facts  about  the  people  and  their  work 
gives  a  constant  view  of  actual  conditions  and  shows 
what  things  are  progressing  satisfactorily;  what 


172  OUR  AMERICA 

things  need  correction;  and  what  dangerous  tend- 
encies there  may  be  in  our  country.  The  purposes 
of  such  records  are  twofold.  They  help  to  guide 
officials  in  performing  their  duties  and  they  serve  to 
educate  the  people  on  the  actual  conditions.  They 
serve,  for  the  country,  the  same  purposes  as  an  in- 
ventory in  a  store.  They  show  our  actual  conditions. 

Birth,  Death  and  Marriage  Records. — Nearly  all 
states  and  cities  now  keep  records  of  births  and 
deaths.  The  United  States  Census  Bureau  gathers 
the  statistics  of  births  and  deaths  for  a  large  part  of 
the  country,  and  the  help  which  the  facts  give  is 
very  great.  For  example,  when  by  the  statistics  of 
deaths  it  is  found  that  a  large  number  of  people  die 
from  certain  causes,  it  points  out  the  need  for  study 
of  the  causes  of  such  diseases.  When  the  death 
statistics  showed  the  enormous  losses  from  tubercu- 
losis, the  people  were  aroused,  and  very  active  work 
has  been  carried  on  to  prevent  this  disease.  When 
the  figures  showed  that  great  numbers  of  babies  died 
in  cities  and  the  cause  was  traced  to  the  tnilk  supply, 
it  aroused  the  people  to  the  necessity  of  requiring 
better  milk.  Already  millions  of  babies  have  been 
saved  by  such  facts.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  large 
part  of  the  wonderful  health  work  now  being  done 
was  brought  about  by  the  startling  figures  in  the 
statistics  of  death  and  its  causes. 

Statistics  of  births  and  marriages,  besides  being 
useful  in  showing  the  actual  state  of  society  in  these 
respects,  are  very  helpful  public  records.  Birth 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  173 

statistics  help  to  enforce  the  compulsory  education 
and  child  labor  law  by  showing  proof  of  age.  These 
also  help  often  in  settling  estates  by  proving  time 
and  place  of  birth  and  parentage.  Marriage  statistics 
are  also  useful  in  preventing  the  crime  of  bigamy  and 
in  proving  rights  to  property  by  proof  of  marriage. 

Records  of  Defectives. — The  United  States  Census 
Bureau  takes  a  census  every  ten  years  of  the  insane, 
feeble-minded,  blind  and  other  defectives.  These  facts 
usually  point  to  the  grave  dangers  which  confront 
the  country  from  these  causes  and  positive  steps  for 
prevention  are  immediately  demanded.  The  com* 
parison  with  former  figures  shows  which  way  we  are 
tending, 

Fire  Loss. — The  loss  from  fires  has  long  been  a 
disgrace  to  our  country.  We  waste  two  hundred  and 
fifty  million  dollars  every  year  in  fires.  We  have 
known  of  the  waste  for  many  years  but  it  took  the 
statistics  gathered  by  state  fire  marshals  to  point  out 
the  main  causes  and  the  remedies.  When  it  was 
shown  that  a  majority  of  fires  were  caused  by  certain 
conditions  which  could  be  remedied,  the  remedy  was 
soon  demanded.  We  are  just  beginning  to  correct 
this  great  and  needless  loss,  and  the  way  was  pointed 
out  by  the  records  of  fires  gathered  by  state  fire 
marshals  and  city  officials. 

Agricultural  Facts. — The  gathering  of  facts  re- 
garding agriculture  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  is  an  undertaking  of  large  proportions. 
The  conditions  are  shown  every  year  and  close  com- 


174  OUR  AMERICA 

parisons  are  possible.  The  yield  of  crops  and  the 
average  per  acre  are  given.  Monthly  statements  are 
given  out  to  show  the  progress  of  the  crops.  Since 
business  is  dependent  to  a  large  degree  on  the  crop 
yield,  the  official  statement  keeps  down  speculation 
by  giving  reliable  facts.  The  census  of  crop  yield  also 
shows  us  the  exact  status  of  our  farm  wealth.  We 
need  such  facts  to  guide  our  plans. 

Manufactures. — Likewise  in  the  case  of  manufac- 
tures, a  census  of  which  is  taken  by  the  United  States 
Census  Bureau  every  five  years,  we  get  invaluable 
facts  about  the  progress  of  industry  and  of  the  wealth 
created.  We  also  learn  about  conditions  of  labor, 
hours  of  work,  wages,  apprenticeship  and  monotony 
of  employment,  which  serves  as  a  groundwork  to 
make  possible  better  conditions  of  work,  living  wages 
and  vocational  education. 

Facts  About  Railroads,  Public  Utilities,  Banking 
Insurance. — In  the  same  manner  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  of  the  United  States,  the  state 
railroad  commissions  and  public  utility  commissions 
are  gathering  facts  about  the  railroads  and  public 
utilities.  These  facts  help  us  to  be  fair  to  the  railroads 
and  public  utilities  and  to  compel  them  to  be 
fair  to  us.  The  Federal  Reserve  Board  and  the 
state  bank  superintendents  get  all  the  facts  of  bank- 
ing and  the  facts  help  to  guide  banking  progress. 
The  state  insurance  departments  do  the  same  for 
insurance.  The  factory  inspectors  and  workmen's 
compensation  boards  of  the  states  gather  the  facts 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  175 

of  industrial  accidents,  and  thousands  are  saved  from 
accidents  by  the  remedial  measures  brought  about 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  facts. 

Facts  About  Education. — The  United  States  com- 
missioner of  education  is  constantly  tabulating  the 
facts  about  educational  progress.  His  reports  form  a 
series  of  annual  charts  of  progress.  Likewise  for  each 
state  the  reports  of  the  state  superintendent  are  a 
guide  for  state  action  on  matters  of  education. 

United  States  Census. — But  the  greatest  *of  all 
record  work  is  that  of  the  ten-year  census  taken  by 
the  United  States  Census  Bureau.  This  is  the  one 
complete  inventory  of  people  and  their  possessions. 
The  work  is  thoroughly  done.  The  whole  country  is 
divided  into  districts.  At  the  last  census  in  1910  the 
enumerators  worked  fifteen  days  gathering  the  facts. 
Every  house  and  home  was  visited  and  the  facts 
gathered  and  put  on  blanks  which  were  forwarded  to 
Washington  and  there  tabulated. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives. — One  of  the 
chief  benefits  of  the  census  is  in  keeping  representa- 
tion equal.  Every  ten  years  the  members  of  Con- 
gress are  distributed  on  the  basis  of  the  new  figures. 
Members  of  the  legislature  in  most  of  the  states  are 
likewise  distributed  on  the  basis  of  the  new  figures. 
This  was,  in  fact,  the  purpose  of  the  census  at  the 
beginning. 

Census  Shows  Conditions. — As  an  agency  to  point 
out  actual  conditions  in  every  field,  and  as  an  inven- 
tory of  our  assets,  it  has  served  a  useful  purpose. 


176  OUR  AMERICA 

The  Census  Bureau  is  now  maintained  as  a  perma- 
nent office  and  reports  showing  actual  conditions  are 
being  constantly  published  to  educate  the  public  and 
guide  the  government  in  all  its  branches.  A  few  of 
the  states,  also,  take  a  census  of  their  people  every 
ten  years  but  this  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary  be- 
cause of  the  thorough  work  done  by  the  United 
States  Census  Bureau. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  are  the  reasons  for  preserving,  at  great  expense,  the 
records  of  government  work  ? 

Why  is  the  recording  of  deeds  to  property  and  of  mort- 
gages made  a  public  matter  ? 

What  advantages  are  there  in  having  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  collect  information  about  the 
progress  of  crops  and  give  out  regular  statements? 

To  what  official,  if  any,  in  your  community  must  births 
and  deaths  be  reported  ?  What  are  the  advantages  of  such 
reports  ?  Get  copies  of  the  blanks  used  for  reports  of  births, 
deaths  and  marriages. 

The  United  States  Census  Bureau  spent  over  $14,000,000 
in  collecting  and  publishing  facts  in  1910.  How  would  you 
justify  the  expenditure? 

Make  a  report  upon  the  exact  method  of  recording  deeds 
and  mortgages  in  your  community. 

Visit  the  office  of  the  recorder  of  deeds,  if  possible,  and 
see  how  the  work  is  done. 

Send  to  the  United  States  Census  Bureau  and  ask  for  a 
copy  of  the  abstract  of  the  census  for  the  use  of  your 
school  ' 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  177 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  method  of  recording  deeds  and  mort- 
gages is  cumbersome  and  causes  needless  expenditure  of 
time  and  money. 

Resolved  that  the  government  should  extend  its  work  of 
gathering  and  tabulating  facts  about  the  people  and  their 
work. 


WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Census  Bureau. 
Reports  of  the  officers  mentioned  in  the  text. 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

The  U.  S.  Census  Bureau. 

The  different  officers  mentioned  in  the  text. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SELECTING  PUBLIC  OFFICERS 

It  takes  a  large  army  of  men  and  women  to  do  all 
of  the  work  which  the  people  need  to  have  done. 
Government  business  is,  in  this  respect,  like  that  of 
a  great  corporation.  The  people  are  the  stockhold- 
ers and  they  must  choose  the  managers  of  their  busi- 
ness and  the  subordinates  since  all  can  not  engage  in 
managing  affairs.  It  requires  an  elaborate  scheme  to 
select  all  of  the  officials  and  employees  in  such  a  way 
as  to  hold  them  all  strictly  accountable  to  their  em- 
ployers— the  people. 

The  Right  of  Suffrage. — The  first  matter  to  con- 
sider is:  Who  may  have  a  voice  in  selecting  officials? 
Who  may  vote?  The  answer  varies  widely  in  the 
states.  In  nearly  all  states,  every  man  over  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  may  vote.  In  many  of  the  western 
states  all  women  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  may 
also  vote  for  all  officers.  In  some  states  women 
may  vote  for  certain  officers  but  not  for  all.  In  other 
states,  women  may  vote  in  school  elections.  A  few 
states  require  an  educational  test,  no  one  being  al- 
lowed to  vote  unless  he  can  read  and  write  and 
understand  reasonably  well.  A  few  states  require  a 
man  to  pay  a  poll  or  other  tax  before  he  can  vote. 

178 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  179 

Several  states  permit  a  foreigner  to  vote  if  he  has 
declared  his  intention  of  becoming  a  citizen. 

Those  who  can  not  vote  are  persons  under  twenty- 
one;  persons  convicted  of  a  felony;  idiots  and  insane 
persons;  Indians  living  in  tribes;  foreigners  who 
have  not  become  citizens ;  and  women  except  as  men- 
tioned above.  The  right  to  vote  is  a  political 
privilege  which  the  people  confer  upon  a  part  of  their 
number.  At  first,  the  privilege  was  very  limited. 
To  vote  a  man  had  in  early  times  in  most  of  the  states 
to  be  a  considerable  taxpayer.  Gradually  the  privi- 
lege has  been  extended. 

Political  Parties. — Our  next  inquiry  concerns  the 
method  of  selection  by  which  a  few  people  are  picked 
out  from  the  mass  and  put  in  charge  of  affairs.  For 
illustration  let  us  follow  first  the  methods  of  electing 
a  governor  and  afterward  the  selection  of  a  president. 

We  must  first  consider  political  parties  and  their 
influence,  because  it  is  through  the  parties  that  men 
are  suggested  and  nominated.  A  political  party  is  a 
body  of  people  who  believe  in  certain  principles  of 
government  and  who  strive  by  acting  together 
in  an  organized  way  to  control  the  election  of  officials 
in  order  to  put  their  principles  into  practise.  We  have 
always  had  parties.  Scarcely  had  Washington  taken 
office  before  the  people  divided  into  Republicans  and 
Federalists.  Since  that  time,  there  have  been  many 
different  parties,  but  usually  there  have  been  only  two 
main  parties  in  any  national  campaign  although  some- 
times, as  in  1912,  there  have  been  three  main  parties. 


180  OUR  AMERICA 

Each  party  puts  forth  one  candidate  for  each  office 
and  the  people  at  the  election  merely  decide  between 
the  parties. 

Nominating  a  Governor. — When  a  governor  is  to 
be  elected,  the  parties  take  the  first  step.  They, 
nominate  the  man  who  is  to  lead  them.  There  are 
two  methods  of  making  the  nomination:  (1)  by  a 
convention  of  delegates;  (2)  by  a  direct  vote  of  the 
members  of  the  party  at  a  direct  primary.  Only  six 
states*  now  (1916)  nominate  their  governors  by  the 
convention  system.  Formerly  all  states  did  so,  but 
the  direct  primary  has  taken  its  place  and,  probably 
soon,  in  none  of  the  states  will  the  convention  be 
used. 

Convention  System  and  Direct  Primary. — Under 
the  convention  system  delegates  elected  from  each 
county,  or  smaller  districts,  meet  and  choose  candi- 
dates. Under  the  direct  primary  system  the  people  of 
each  party  go  to  the  polls  and  vote  for  their  choice 
and  the  person  in  each  party  who  receives  the  highest 
number  of  votes  is  the  candidate  of  that  party. 

Before  the  convention  or  the  direct  primary  is 
held,  a  campaign  is  carried  ©n  by  persons  seeking 
the  nomination.  Sometimes,  a  man  seeks  the  nomina- 
tion because  he  is  ambitious  to  held  an  honored 
office;  sometimes,  because  he  is  fired  with  zeal  to  do 
his  state  a  service;  sometimes,  a  group  of  people 


*Rhode    Island,    Connecticut,   Delaware,   New   Mexico,   Nevada 
and  Utah. 


\ 

« 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  181 

desire  to  promote  some  idea  and  mutually  agree  upon 
a  man  to  lead  them.  There  are  always  plenty  of 
candidates  for  the  important  offices. 

The  Convention. — If  the  nomination  is  to  be  by  a 
convention,  the  energy  of  the  person  seeking  nomina- 
tion must  be  spent  on  securing  the  election  of  dele- 
gates from  the  different  counties  or  districts  who  will 
be  favorable  to  him.  He  must  have  friends  who  will 
look  after  his  interests  everywhere.  Usually  several 
candidates  have  some  delegates  in  the  convention  and 
if  no  one  candidate  has  a  majority,  the  voting  is  con- 
tinued until  some  candidates  drop  out  and  their  sup- 
porters go  to  others,  finally  resulting  in  giving  a  ma- 
jority of  votes  for  one  candidate.  Cases  have  been 
known  where  the  deadlock  continued  for  many  ballots 
because  each  candidate's  friends  stood  firm,  hoping 
that  the  others  might  give  up.  Often  it  happens 
in  convention  that  the  man  who  has  a  small  number 
of  votes  in  the  beginning,  finally  becomes  the  one 
upon  whom  the  delegates  agree.  Sometimes  men 
have  been  nominated  who  had  no  votes  at  the  be- 
ginning. Such  persons  are  known  as  "dark  horses." 

When  the  nomination  is  made  and  all  the  candi- 
dates for  state  offices  have  been  named  and  a  plat- 
form adopted,  the  convention  adjourns.  Then  comes 
the  battle  between  the  parties  for  the  final  election. 
We  shall  take  up  the  methods  of  campaigning  later. 

The  Direct  Primary. — The  direct  primary  method 
of  nominating  candidates,  now  in  force  in  forty-two 
states,  is  much  simpler.  It  is  merely  an  election 


182  '  OUR  AMERICA 

conducted  like  the  regular  election,  and  the  person 
who  receives  the  largest  number  of  votes  in  each 
party  in  the  state  is  the  candidate  of  that  party.  All 
candidates  are  voted  for,  at  one  time,  each  voter 
voting  the  ballots  of  his  own  party.  To  be  voted  for 
at  such  an  election,  the  candidate  must  usually  have 
a  petition  bearing  a  large  number  of  signatures  pre- 
sented to  the  secretary  of  state  before  some  specified 
time,  prior  to  the  primary.* 

Nomination  of  Candidates  for  President. — The 
nomination  of  candidates  for  president  is  carried  on 
in  a  similar  way  but  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale. 
The  issues  are  more  clearly  marked  and  the  candi- 
dates are  better  known.  During  the  time  a  cam- 
paign for  a  presidential  nomination  is  on,  the  country 
is  interested  from  one  end  to  the  other.  There  are 
usually  several  candidates  in  each  prominent  party. 
The  states  which  have  some  prominent  man  usually 
present  him  as  a  "favorite  son"  though  he  may  not 
get  many  votes  in  other  states. 

The  convention  is  made  up  of  delegates  from  each 
state.  The  rule  is,  generally,  to  allow  to  each  state 
two  delegates  for  each  senator  and  representative  in 
Congress.  A  few  delegates  are  elected  also  from 
Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines  and  Hawaii.  The 
delegates  are,  in  some  cases,  elected  by  the  whole 


*In  the  closed  primary,  the  voter  must  declare  to  which  party 
he  belongs  and  vote  that  ticket.  In  the  open  primary,  a  voter 
votes  for  whichever  party  he  pleases  without  the  knowledge  of 
any  one. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  183 

state,  but  usually  four  are  elected  by  the  state  and 
two  are  elected  by  each  congressional  district.  In 
the  Republican  convention,  under  their  rules,  it  takes 
a  majority  of  the  delegates,  while  in  the  Democratic 
convention  it  takes  two-thirds  of  the  delegates  to 
nominate  a  candidate. 

Having  been  elected,  the  delegates  come  to  the 
convention,  pledged,  usually,  to  support  a  certain 
candidate.  The  friends  of  each  candidate  are  active. 
Each  has  headquarters  where  his  friends  gather  for 
conference  and  work.  It  is  an  exciting  scene  when  a 
thousand  delegates  and  tens  of  thousands  of  friends 
and  visitors  gather  at  a  convention  to  select  a  candi- 
date for  president,  thereby  conferring  the  highest 
honor  that  the  party  can  give. 

The  Principal  Contests. — The  principal  -contests 
of  the  convention  are  over  the  adoption  of  the  plat- 
form and  the  nomination  of  a  presidential  candidate. 
A  candidate  for  vice-president  is  also  named  but  the 
contest  is  not  very  lively  until  after  the  president  is 
nominated.  Often  the  candidate  for  vice-president  is 
one  of  the  defeated  candidates  for  president  or  else 
he  is  picked  to  represent  another  section  of  the  coun- 
try from  that  of  the  candidate  for  president. 

Methods  of  Selecting  Delegates. — Delegates  to 
national  conventions  are  chosen  in  some  states  by 
the  convention  method  and  in  some  by  the  voters, 
voting  directly.  The  names  of  candidates  are  put 
on  the  ballot  in  many  states  and  the  voter  signifies 
his  choice  and  at  the  same  time  votes  for  delegates. 


184  OUR  AMERICA 

The  delegates  in  such  cases  are  morally  bound  to  sup- 
port the  candidate  who  receives  the  largest  number 
of  votes.  They  usually  do  so,  but  if  there  is  a  dead- 
lock and  no  one  can  get  enough  votes  to  be  nomi- 
nated, the  delegates  who  are  thus  instructed  must 
change  their  votes. 

The  Platform. — Before  nominating  candidates,  the 
party  decides  upon  a  platform — that  is,  a  statement 
of  issues  with  the  views  which  the  party  supports. 
This  is  to  tell  the  voters  for  what  the  party  will 
stand  if  their  candidates  are  elected. 

The  Campaign  for  Election. — The  national  con- 
ventions are  held  usually  in  June.  Then  follows  a 
period  of  quiet  during  which  the  parties  organize 
and  get  ready  for  the  great  event  of  the  campaign. 
The  candidates  are  notified  by  special  committees 
and  the  occasion  is  made  important  by  the  opportuni- 
ty which  it  gives  to  the  candidate  to  sound  in  his 
speech  of  acceptance  the  keynote  of  his  campaign. 

Party  Committee. — The  organization  of  a  party 
for  a  campaign  is  on  a  large  scale.  The  national 
committee,  consisting  of  one  person  from  each  state, 
is  in  full  charge  of  the  campaign.  They  elect  a 
chairman  who  becomes  the  manager  and  an  execu- 
tive committee  which  meets  frequently.  The  whole 
committee  does  not  meet  often.  Each  member  is  in 
his  own  state  attending  to  the  campaign  there.  In 
each  state,  there  is  a  state  committee  which  looks 
after  the  campaign  in  the  state.  There  is  a  county 
committee  in  every  county  which  works  for  the  state 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  185 

committee  and  also  looks  after  the  interests  of  the 
county  ticket  of  the  party  in  the  county.  A  precinct 
committeeman  in  every  voting  precinct  completes 
the  organization.  The  whole  makes  one  great 
machine  from  the  smallest  precinct  up  to  the  chair- 
man of  the  national  committee. 

The  duty  of  these  committees  is  to  see  that  the 
party  workers  are  busy,  working  for  the  success  of 
the  party.  They  distribute  campaign  speeches,  ar- 
range for  political  meetings  and  organize  clubs.  They 
canvass  the  voters  to  learn  how  they  stand  and  then 
try  to  convince  the  doubtful  ones.  On  election  day 
the  precinct  committeemen,  with  their  workers,  watch 
at  the  polls  to  prevent  frauds  and  work  to  get  the 
voters  out  to  vote.  The  most  successful  workers  aim 
to  get  their  own  party  members  out  early.  A  record 
is  kept  and  the  doubtful  ones  are  then  looked  after. 
Late  in  the  day  when  it  is  found  that  some  have  not 
voted,  a  special  effort  is  made  to  get  them  to  the 
polls. 

People  Should  Vote  Without  Urging. — Good  citi- 
zens must  wonder  why  all  of  this  activity  is  needed 
to  get  people  out  to  vote.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
some  citizens  are  so  careless  about  their  political  du- 
ties. In  spite  of  all  efforts,  thousands  fail  to  vote  at 
every  election  for  no  reason  except  ignorance  and 
indifference. 

Corrupt  Practises. — Some  party  workers  are  often 
engaged  in  dishonest  work  in  buying  voters;  paying 
a  day's  wages  in  order  to  get  some  men  to  vote; 


186  OUR  AMERICA 

paying  fares  of  voters  to  the  polls ;  preventing  others 
from  voting  by  threats  and  otherwise  preventing  a 
fait  election.  Conditions  are  better  now  than  they 
used  to  be  because  the  secret  ballot  makes  it  impos- 
sible to  see  how  a  man  votes.  Occasionally  it  is 
shown  that  the  worst  kind  of  criminal  practises  are 
still  carried  on,  such  as  buying  votes ;  voting  more 
than  once ;  stuffing  the  ballot  box ;  counting  more 
votes  than  were  cast;  and  driving  voters  away  by 
threats  or  actual  violence. 

Honest  Elections  Needed. — Good  government  re- 
quires that  elections  be  honest.  The  people  are  select- 
ing the  managers  of  their  business  and  anything 
which  prevents  a  free  choice  is  wholly  wrong.  Some 
people  who  seek  to  gain  advantage  from  getting  the 
offices,  pay  money  to  win;  but  when  such  persons 
win,  the  interests  of  the  people  suffer. 

Election  Officials. — The  election  itself  is  conducted 
by  officers  who  are  appointed  or  elected  for  the  pur- 
pose. Each  precinct  or  election  district  has  its  own 
election  officers,  which  consist  usually  of  election 
inspectors  and  judges  or  clerks.  They  guard  the 
ballots  put  into  the  boxes  or  take  care  of  the  voting 
machine  if  one  is  used  and  at  the  close  of  the  polls 
they  count  and  tally  the  votes  cast.  The  results  are 
then  sent  by  them  to  the  county  canvassing  officer 
or  board  and  the  totals  for  the  county  made  up. 
These  returns  are  then  sent  to  the  state  election 
boarc1  or  to  the  secretary  of  state  where  the  total 
vot<°  of  the  state  is  counted. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  187 

How  the  Result  is  Determined. — In  case  of  state 
officers,  the  person  who  receives  the  largest  number 
of  votes  is  declared  elected.  In  the  case  of  the  presi- 
dent or  vice-president,  the  person  who  gets  the 
largest  number  of  votes  in  a  state  carries  that  state 
and  its  electoral  vote  is  cast  for  him.  The  final  elec- 
tion of  the  president  is  determined  by  the  electoral 
vote  of  all  the  states  and  not  by  the  total  vote  cast  in 
the  country.  A  candidate  must  receive  a  majority  of 
all  of  the  electoral  votes  to  be  elected.* 

Nomination  and  Election  of  Local  Officers. — The 
nomination  and  election  of  county,  city  and  township 
officers  are  conducted  in  a  similar  manner  and  usually 
at  the  same  times  as  the  state  officers.  It  is,  however, 
becoming  customary  to  have  city  elections  and  elec- 
tion of  judges  held  at  different  times  from  state  and 
national  elections  so  that  voters  will  more  freely 
vote  for  good  men  without  regard  to  their  party. 
In  many  places,  the  ballot  for  such  officers  is  non- 
partisan — that  is,  there  are  no  party  nominations  and 
no  indication  on  the  ballot  as  to  what  party  a  candi- 
date belongs. 

In  nearly  all  states,  the  nomination  of  county, 
city  and  township  officers  is  now  made  by  the  direct 
primary.  The  person  who  receives  the  largest  num- 
ber of  votes  is  nominated  by  his  party  in  the  primary 
and  likewise  the  person  receiving  the  highest  vote  in 
the  election  is  elected  to  the  office. 

*For  the  exact  method,  see  the  U.  S.  Constitutional  Amendment 
No.  12,  p.  379. 


188  OUR  AMERICA 

Nominations  and  Elections  by  Less  Than  a  Major- 
ity.— In  nominations  and  elections  by  a  plurality 
vote,  it  often  occurs  that  the  person  chosen  does 
not  have  anything  like  a  majority  of  the  votes.  If 
there  are  four  candidates  for  an  office  and  the  first 
receives  ten  thousand  votes,  the  second  nine  thou- 
sand five  hundred  votes,  the  third  eight  thousand 
seven  hundred  votes,  and  the  fourth  eight  thousand 
votes,  the  person  elected  receives  only  a  little  over 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  votes.  This  is  not  ma- 
jority rule. 

Remedies  for  Minority  Elections. — Many  devices 
have  been  invented  to  insure  that  the  winner  be  the 
choice  of  a  majority.  The  three  principal  devices 
are  the  following: 

(1)  The  double  election  is  one  method.    Thus  in 
the  case  above  cited,  a  second  election  would  be  held 
and  at  that  election  the  two  highest  candidates  only 
would  be  voted  for.     One  would  then  receive  a  ma- 
jority. 

(2)  The  second  choice  plan  is  sometimes  provided, 
under  which  each  voter  votes  not  only  for  his  first 
choice  but  also  for  his  second  choice.    Then,  if  no  one 
has  a  majority  of  first  choice  votes  the  second  choices 
are  added  to  the  first  choices  to  decide. 

(3)  Another  method  of  election  to  city  councils 
or  commissions  is  by  what  is  called  "proportional  rep- 
resentation." This  system  combines  the  second  choice 
with  a  plan  to  have  all  important  factions  represented 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  189 

in  the  council.  This  system  can  be  best  explained  by 
an  example.  Suppose  there  are  ten  candidates  for  five 
places  in  a  city  council.  Each  voter  votes  for  one  can- 
didate. If  two  thousand  seven  hundred  votes  are  cast, 
the  quota  or  number  of  votes  necessary  to  elect  is  two 
hundred  and  seventy-one.  Any  candidate  who  gets 
two  hundred  and  seventy-one  votes  is  elected.  The 
low  man  is  dropped  and  the  second  choice  votes  of 
his  supporters  are  distributed  among  the  other  can- 
didates according  as  they  were  voted.  Whenever  any 
of  the  candidates  reach  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  votes,  he  is  declared  elected.  When  all  but  the 
number  to  be  elected  are  eliminated,  the  remainder 
are  elected  whether  they  all  receive  the  full  quota  of 
two  hundred  and  seventy-one  or  not. 

The  method  of  figuring  the  vote  under  this  sys- 
tem is  not  easy  to  understand,  but,  in  practise,  it 
has  not  resulted  in  difficulties.  The  merit  of  the  sys- 
tem is  claimed  to  be  that  each  party  can  be  repre- 
sented in  proportion  to  its  voting  strength. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  are  the  qualifications  for  voting  in  your  state?, 
What  persons  are  not  allowed  to  vote  ? 

What  is  the  advantage  of  requiring  the  payment  of  taxes 
before  voting? 

What  are  the  merits  of  an  educational  test  for  voting? 

Do  the  political  parties  in  your  state  nominate  candidates 
for  office  by  the  direct  primary  system  or  by  the  conven- 
tion system? 


190  OUR  AMERICA 

What  advantage  is  there  in  electing  one  man  and  leaving 
him  to  make  appointments  of  the  rest  over  the  election  of 
several  officers? 

Should  delegates  to  a  party  convention  be  apportioned 
according  to  population  or  according  to  the  number  of 
voters  of  the  party? 

Explain  the  electoral  system  by  which  the  president  and 
vice-president  are  elected. 

In  1888,  Grover  Cleveland  received  over  100,000  more 
votes  than  Benjamin  Harrison,  yet  Harrison  was  elected. 
How  did  that  happen  ? 

What  is  a  plurality?  A  majority?  Why  is  election  by 
a  plurality  not  a  fair  method? 

Explain  the  second  choice  method  of  voting.  What  are 
its  advantages? 

Is  it  right  for  any  person  to  receive  his  railroad  fare  to 
and  from  the  polls  on  election  day? 

Find  the  exact  way  in  which  party  committees  are  organ- 
ized in  your  county,  city  and  state. 

Visit  the  polling  place  in  your  election  district  on  election 
day  and  make  a  report  on  the  way  the  election  is  conducted. 

Nearly  all  of  the  states  require  that  a  voter  be  registered 
some  time  before  election  day.  Why  is  that  desirable? 

All  of  the  states  have  a  secret  ballot.  What  are  the 
advantages  of  the  secret  ballot? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Resolved  that  the  direct  primary  method  of  nominating 
officials  is  preferable  to  the  convention  system. 

Resolved  that  the  age  limit  for  voters  should  be  reduced 
to  eighteen  years. 

Resolved  that  a  voter  who  fails  to  vote  should  lose  his 
right  to  vote. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  191 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Vol.  2,  Chap.  LXIX  "National  Nominating  Conven- 
tions." 

Chap.  LXX  "The  Nominating  Conventions  at  Work." 

Chap.  LXXI  "The  Presidential  Campaign." 
Election  laws  of  your  state. 

Ray,    Introduction    to    Political    Parties    and    Practical 
Politics. 

Chap.  VI  "Nominations  by  Direct  Primary." 

Chap.  IX  "Party  Machines." 

Chap.  X  "Campaign  Methods." 

Chap.  XII  "Suffrage  Qualifications." 

Chap.  XIII  "Elections  and  Ballots." 

Woodburn,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the 
United  States. 

Chap.   XII  "The  Composition    of    National    Conven- 
tions." 

Chap.  XIII  "National  Conventions  of  Today." 

Chap.  XIV  "The  Conduct  of  the  Campaign." 

Chap.  XVI  "An  Honest  Ballot." 

Chap.  XXI  "Primary  Election  Reforms." 
Commons,  Proportional  Representation. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Woman  Suffrage. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Direct  Primaries, 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Proportional  Representation  League. 

National  American  Woman  Suffrage  Association. 

National  Association  Opposed  to  Woman  Suffrage. 

Secretary  of  state  (your  state)  for  election  laws  and 
returns  on  state  and  national  elections. 

County  clerk  for  sample  ballots  and  county  election  re- 
turns. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CIVIL  SERVICE 

There  are  no  exact  figure.s  of  the  number  of  people 
employed  in  the  work  of  government.  The  national 
government  employs  about  a  half  million  in  Wash- 
ington and  over  the  country  to  do  its  work.  The 
states,  cities,  counties,  towns  and  townships  proba- 
bly employ  three  times  that  number  for  a  part  or  all 
of  the  time.  The  matter  of  building  and  caring  for 
roads  and  streets  alone  takes  many  thousands  of 
men.  The  work  of  government  covers  so  many  fields 
that  practically  all  kinds  of  workers  are  needed,  from 
the  highest  skilled  and  professional  workers  to  the 
men  who  work  at  common  labor. 

Extent  of  Government  Employment. — The  num- 
ber of  persons  whom  the  people  choose  by  election 
is  very  small.  The  only  officers  of  the  United  States 
elected  by  the  people  are  the  president  and  vice- 
president,  the  ninety-six  senators  and  four  hundred 
thirty-five  representatives.  Each  person  helps  to 
elect  only  five  federal  officers,  president,  vice-presi- 
dent, two  senators  and  a  representative.  The  rest 
are  selected  by  appointment.  A  large  part  of  the 
officers  in  counties  and  townships  are  elected  directly 
by  the  people,  and  states  and  cities  elect  a  large  num- 

192 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  193 

her  of  officers.  But  the  total  of  the  elected  officials  is 
only  a  mere  fraction  of  the  whole.  Probably  two 
million  men  are  appointed  or  hired  to  do  the  public 
work  by  those  whom  we  elect. 

It  is  evident  that  the  problem  of  appointing  and 
hiring  men  for  government  work  is  a  very  big  one. 
It  is  a  matter  of  the  very  greatest  importance  that 
good  men  be  secured  for  all  kinds  of  work  and  that 
means  be  provided  to  secure  efficient  service  from 
all. 

The  Spoils  Method. — The  method  in  general  use 
in  appointing  and  hiring  men  for  government  work, 
has  been  the  spoils  method.  The  men  elected  to 
office  by  a  political  party  have  rewarded  the  members 
of  their  party  by  distributing  the  positions  among 
them.  Government  positions  have  been  wrongly 
looked  upon  as  easy  places  where  the  pay  was  good 
and  the  work  light  and  where  no  special  knowledge 
or  ability  was  required.  Every  time  the  control 
shifted  from  one  party  to  another,  the  old  employees 
were  turned  out  and  new  ones  put  in  their  places. 
This  was  called  rotation  in  office.  In  most  of  the 
states  and  cities  of  this  country,  that  is  the  system 
which  prevails  to-day.  Every  change  of  party  puts 
out  the  experienced  workers  and  puts  new  untried 
people  in  their  places. 

The  spoils  system  began  in  the  early  part  of  the 
century  when  President  Andrew  Jackson  turned  out 
most  of  the  office  holders  and  put  his -political  friends 
in  their  places.  Each  president  afterward  followed 


194  OUR  AMERICA 

the  custom,  and  the  same  system  was  extended  to 
the  state,  city  and  local  governments.  It  was  so 
unbusinesslike  thus  to  handle  affairs  that  thinking 
men  began  to  see  the  folly  of  using  the-  positions  in 
the  government  service  as  a  means  of  rewarding 
political  workers  instead  of  serving  the  people.  The 
demand  grew  strong  for  civil  service  reform.  The 
central  idea  of  such  reform  was  that  public  office  or 
position  is  a  public  trust  and  that  all  persons  should 
be  selected  for  merit  and  retained  as  long  as  they  do 
their  duty  well.  It  was  pointed  out  that  no  business 
concern  could  prosper  if  it  used  the  spoils  method 
of  filling  its  positions. 

Civil  Service  Reform. — The  first  step  was  taken 
by  the  United  States  in  1883,  when  the  Civil  Service 
Law  was  passed  which  classified  the  positions  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  federal  government  and 
required  that  persons  appointed  to  certain  positions 
show  evidence  of  qualification.  The  president  was 
given  power  to  add  other  positions  and  during  the 
years  since,  more  than  nine-tenths  of  all  positions 
in  the  United  States  government  have  been  placed 
under  the  merit  system.  The  states  of  New  York, 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Illi- 
nois, Kansas,  California,  Colorado  and  Connecticut 
have  placed  the  merit  system  in  operation  for  a  large 
part  of  their  employees,  and  many  large  cities  have 
followed  the  same  example.  Nearly  all  large  cities 
now  select  policemen  and  firemen  without  regard  to 
politics  and  remove  them  only  for  cause. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  195 

Examinations. — Appointments  to  the  civil  service 
by  means  of  examinations  are  now  made  for 
many  thousands  of  positions.  The  examinations  are 
held  by  the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission 
for  positions  under  the  federal  government,  and  by 
the  state  and  city  commissions  in  those  states  and 
cities  which  have  this  system,  for  positions  in  the 
state  and  city  service.  These  commissions  give  such 
tests  as  they  think  will  best  prove  the  qualifications 
of  the  applicants.  In  some  cases,  the  test  is  simple 
and  easy.  For  some  positions,  such  as  that  of  labor- 
ers, the  fitness  of  the  applicant  is  easily  determined; 
while  for  highly  skilled  positions,  the  commission 
may  need  to  give  thorough  tests  of  knowledge,  ex- 
perience, general  ability  and  fitness. 

Department  Clerks. — For  ordinary  clerks  in  the 
department  at  Washington,  the  examination  is  de- 
signed to  test  the  educational  qualifications  of  the 
applicant.  The  test  requires  an  examination  in  the 
following  subjects:  (Figures  indicate  relative  weight 
on  a  scale  of  100.)  Spelling  (10);  arithmetic  (25); 
penmanship  (15);  report  writing  (25);  copying  and 
correcting  manuscript  (15);  geography  and  civil 
government  of  the  United  States  (10). 

Policemen. — The  usual  method  of  examining 
policemen  for  appointment  is  as  follows:  First  the 
application  blank  filled  by  the  candidate  shows  his 
general  character  and  experience.  Second,  a  mental 
examination  tests  his  general  ability.  Arithmetic 
problems  are  generally  given  because  they  form  a 


196  OUR  AMERICA 

convenient  test.  City  information  is  another  impor- 
tant part  in  testing  the  applicant's  knowledge  of  his 
city.  Report  writing  and  questions  on  the  rules  and 
regulations  constitute  the  other  principal  elements 
of  the  examination.  Physical  fitness  is,  of 
course;  also  required,  and  the  physical  examination 
is  rigid. 

Firemen. — Similarly,  in  examinations  for  firemen, 
there  is  a  test  of  the  general  mental  ability  of  the 
applicant  and  a  rigid  test  of  the  physical  strength 
and  ability  of  the  applicant. 

Highly  Skilled  and  Professional  Positions. — For 
the  highly  skilled  and  important  positions,  the  com- 
mission usually  requires  a  test  of  experience,  be- 
sides an  educational  test,  and  also  recommendations 
from  those  who  are  in  a  position  to  know  the  general 
ability  of  the  applicant.  The  questions  in  such  exam- 
inations are  not  mere  tests  of  information  but  often 
are  intended  to  show  what  the  applicant  can  do  in 
broader  lines.  The  examination  for  librarian  of  the 
Chicago  public  library,  a  few  years  ago,  asked  among 
other  things,  that  the  applicant  write  an  extended 
statement  about  the  problems  confronting  the  library 
and  the  best  way  to  meet  them.  Since  this  would 
be  the  first  problem  confronting  the  person  chosen, 
its  value  as  a  test  is  plain. 

The  Eligible  List. — Those  who  pass  the  examina- 
tion are  placed  on  the  eligible  list  for  appointment 
and  when  a  vacancy  occurs  the  person  who  is  to 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  197 

make  the  appointment  does  so  from  the  eligible  list. 
The  civil  service  commissions  do  not  make  the  ap- 
pointments. They  merely  give  the  examinations 
and  list  the  persons  who  pass  the  examinations.  Ap- 
pointments are  made  by  the  persons  at  the  head  of 
the  department  in  which  the  person  is  to  be  appoint- 
ed. 

When  a  vacancy  occurs  or  a  new  office  is  created 
the  board  or  chief  in  charge  of  the  department  re- 
quests a  list  of  the  persons  who  have  passed  the 
examination  for  the  kind  of  position  to  be  filled.  If 
there  is  no  one  already  on  the  list  for  the  place,  the 
commission  holds  an  examination. 

Sometimes  the  entire  list  of  eligibles  is  given  and 
the  appointing  officer  selects  any  one  he  chooses 
whether  he  is  the  person  having  the  highest  standing 
or  not.  Under  this  plan  every  person  who  is  ap- 
pointed must  have,  at  least,  a  certain  minimum  of 
standing;  but  the  person  appointed  need  not  be  the 
best.  This  plan  has  not  proved  satisfactory. 

The  usual  method  is  for  the  commission  to  submit 
the  names  of  the  three  persons  having  the  highest 
standing  and  the  appointing  officer  selects  one  of  the 
three.  Then,  there  is,  also,  the  plan  of  submitting 
only  the  name  of  the  person  having  the  highest 
standing.  This  latter  plan  has  the  advantage  of 
preventing  any  possibility  of  favoritism  in  making 
the  appointment.  The  one  who  stands  highest  al- 
ways gets  the  place.  There  are  advantages  in  all 


198  OUR  AMERICA 

three  of  these  plans,  but  if  the  examination  has  been 
a  fair  test  of  ability,  it  is  the  best  plan  that  the  ap- 
pointments be  made  in  the  order  of  standing. 

The  Advantages  of  the  Merit  System. — The  merit 
system  has  many  advantages  over  the  spoils  system. 

First — Men  are  appointed  to  places  because  they 
have  proved  that  they  are  the  best  qualified  and  not 
because  they  are  political  friends  of  the  person  making 
the  appointment.  This  is  the  method  of  filling  places 
in  all  successful  business.  No  business  could  be  suc- 
cessful if  the  important  positions  were  filled  by 
friends  of  the  manager  without  regard  to  their  abil- 
ity in  the  business. 

Second — Under  the  merit  system  every  person  is 
continued  in  his  position  as  long  as  he  is  able  to 
perform  the  duties  properly.  He  is  removed  only 
for  cause.  Employees  therefore  have  an  opportunity 
to  learn  the  work  they  are  doing  thoroughly,  and 
become  expert  at  it.  No  employee  will  take  pride  in 
his  work  if  he  knows  that  he  may  be  removed  with- 
out cause. 

Third — Promotion  and  honors  are  the  principal 
incentive  to  cause  men  to  work.  The  merit  sys- 
tem stimulates  men  to  do  their  best  in  the  hope  that 
they  may  get  the  rewards.  Wherever  civil  service  re- 
form has  been  well  established,  all  promotions  are 
made  on  merit.  The  chance  is  thus  given  to  every 
one  to  rise  in  the  service. 

Fourth — The  merit  system  stimulates  people  to 
prepare  for  the  civil  service  as  a  life  career.  Under 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  199 

the  spoils  system,  no  one  would  prepare  himself 
especially  for  a  government  position,  because  some 
unprepared  politician  might  have  a  better  chance 
of  getting  the  place.  He  would  not  be  sure  that  if 
he  got  it  he  could  keep  it  beyond  the  next  election. 
Under  the  merit  system,  any  person  may  prepare  to 
serve  his  government  in  any  one  of  the  hundreds  of 
promising  fields  open  to  him,  knowing  that  his  own 
merit  would  be  the  test  in  getting  the  place  and  in 
holding  it.  One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  coun- 
try is  to  get  the  best  men  to  serve  the  people,  and 
under  the  merit  system  this  is  possible.  In  Germany, 
England  and  France,  where  the  merit  system  pre- 
vails, the  highest  grade  of  men  go  into  the  public 
service  as  a  life  career.  That  ought  to  be  so  every- 
where in  America.  It  is  so  in  many  branches  of  the 
United  States  government  service  and  is  developing 
in  the  states  and  cities. 

Pensions  for  Government  Employees. — One  of 
the  difficulties  which  the  civil  service  has  had,  is 
that  of  the  employee  who  has  become  unable  or  is  too 
old  to  do  the  work  of  his  place  efficiently.  It  is  un- 
fair to  turn  him  out  after  long  service  and  yet  to 
keep  him  means  that  the  work  will  not  be  done  so 
well  as  it  might  be.  The  pension  plan  is,  therefore, 
suggested.  Under  this  plan,  any  person  may  retire 
after  a  certain  age  or  when  he  is  unable  to  perform 
his  duties.  He  receives  a  pension  as  long  as  he  lives, 
The  money  to  pay  the  pension  comes  from  assess* 
ments  upon  all  the  people  in  the  service  and  from 


200  OUR  AMERICA 

the  government.  Such  pensions  are  already  quite 
generally  provided  for  teachers,  policemen  and  fire- 
men, and  definite  plans  are  under  way  to  create  a 
pension  system  for  all  persons  working  for  the 
United  States.  Many  of  the  big  corporations  and 
most  of  the  European  countries  have  such  a  system 
by  which  they  pension  their  old  employees. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Describe  the  method  of  appointing  the  persons  who  do 
the  work  of  the  county  in  which  you  live.  The  city.  The 
state. 

What  are  the  qualifications  which  a  business  man  or  a 
farmer  requires  when  hiring  a  man  to  do  his  work  ? 

What  harmful  effects  come  from  "rotation  in  office"? 

Is  a  written  examination  a  fair  test  of  a  person's  ability  ? 
What  other  evidences  of  qualifications  should  <be  required? 

Which  is  preferable,  the  selection  of  the  highest  person 
on  the  list,  the  selection  of  one  of  the  three  highest,  or 
the  selection  of  any  one  who  passes  the  examination  ? 

Should  a  person,  once  appointed,  hold  the  place  indefi- 
nitely? 

How  are  policemen  and  firemen  selected  in  the  city  in 
which  you  live? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Resolved  that  the  selection  of  all  public  employees  should 
be  based  upon  a  thorough  examination  of  their  qualifica- 
tions. 

Resolved  that  a  system  of  old  age  pensions  be  provided 
and  that  all  persons  over  seventy  years  of  age  be  retired 
from  service  on  a  pension. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  201 

WHERE  TO  FIND  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commission. 

Manual  of  Examination  and  Annual  Report. 
State  Civil  Service  Commission. 

Manual  of  Examination  and  Regular  Reports. 
City    and    County    Civil    Service    Commission    (Where 
existent). 

Manual  of  Examination. 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Vol.  2,  Chap.  XLV  "Spoils." 
Woodburn,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems. 

Chap.  XVIII. 

Ray,    Introduction    to    Political    Parties    and    Practical 
Politics. 

Chap.  XIV  "The  Spoils  System." 

Chap  XV  "Civil  Service  Reform." 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

National  Civil  Service  Reform  League. 
National  Municipal  League. 
United  States  Civil  Service  Commission. 
State  and  Local  Civil  Service  Commission. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
DISCHARGING  OFFICERS  AND  EMPLOYEES 

The  business  of  conducting  the  common  affairs  of 
the  people  of  each  community  and  of  each  state  and 
of  the  nation  is  very  large.  As  we  learned  in  the 
last  chapter  it  takes  probably  two  million  people  to 
perform  the  tasks  of  government  in  all  its  branches. 
This  is  a  great  army  of  men  and  women.  They  are 
the  people's  employees.  The  people  in  this  country 
are  the  employers. 

The  Task  of  Managing  Government  Employees.— 
The  task  of  managing  two  million  employees  of  a 
single  person  would  be  easy  compared  with  the  dif- 
ficulties of  management  of  the  same  number  of  em- 
ployees by  a  half  dozen  employers.  Likewise,  the  task 
of  managing  by  a  half  dozen  is  simple  compared  with 
the  difficulties  which  the  people  as  an  employer  have 
in  seeing  that  they  get  proper  service  from  their 
employees.  An  individual  or  head  of  a  business  has 
power  over  his  employees  and  may  discharge  or  trans- 
fer any  one  whenever  it  will  benefit  the  business.  The 
people  can  not  do  that  because  they  have  power  only 
for  one  day — that  is,  election  day,  when  they  are 
casting  their  ballots.  Elaborate  machinery  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  enable  the  people  to  keep  constant 

202 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  203 

control  over  their  servants  in  order  to  get  the  best 
possible  work. 

People  Control  Through  Elected  Officials. — The 
people  elect  certain  officers,  as  we  have  seen,  and 
leave  to  these  elected  officials  the  appointment  of 
subordinates.  It  is  through  the  elected  officials  that 
the  people  hold  control  over  the  appointed  employees. 
The  important  question  to  us  is,  therefore,  that  of 
controlling  the  elected  officials. 

Incentives  in  Public  Work. — There  are  two  incen- 
tives which  make  men  work  hard  in  any  employment 
— the  hope  of  promotion  and  the  fear  of  discharge  or 
being  set  back.  The  person  who  works  for  the  peo- 
ple in  doing  the  tasks  of  government  is  particularly 
subject  to  these  incentives.  Promotions  and  dis- 
charges are  given  more  attention  in  public  employ- 
ment than  in  the  case  of  private  employment. 

Failure  to  Reelect.— The  elected  official  is  held 
accountable  because  he  knows  that  his  successes 
will  be  heard  about  and  his  failures  known  and 
when  his  term  of  office  expires,  the  people  will  judge 
whether  he  has  clone  their  work  to  suit  them.  One 
way  to  discharge  such  an  employee  is  to  fail  to  re- 
elect  him  at  the  close  of  the  term.  One  way  to 
show  that  his  work  has  been  approved  is  to  give  him 
a  good  vote  for  reelection.  This  is  the  method  of 
control  used  with  respect  to  all  officers  who  are 
elected  by  the  people. 

It  is  a  simple  method.  We  hire  a  man  to  work 
for  us  for  a  certain  length  of  time.  At  the  end  of 


204  OUR  AMERICA 

the  time  he  decides  whether  he  wants  to  try  to  cot>- 
tinue  at  the  job  and  we  decide  whether  we  want  to 
keep  him. 

This  serves  one  purpose,  but  it  does  not  help  much 
in  the  case  of  the  man  who,  before  the  end  of  his 
term,  proves  to  be  corrupt  or  incompetent  in  office. 
Such  an  officer  may  be  discharged  at  the  end  of  his 
term  by  the  voters,  but  he  may  do  much  harm  before 
his  term  ends.  Something  is  needed  to  meet  this 
danger.  The  people  must  have  means  at  hand  at  all 
times  to  call  their  employees  to  account.  These  are 
furnished  by  the  method  of  impeachment  and  lately 
by  the  recall. 

Impeachment. — The  only  method  employed  for 
many  years  in  discharging  corrupt  and  incompetent 
officers  was  that  of  impeachment.  This  process 
means  that  the  officer  is  charged  with  grave  offenses 
and  is  tried  before  a  court.  If  he  is  found  guilty  of 
the  charges,  he  is,  thereby,  put  out  of  office.  The 
president,  vice-president  and  all  civfl  officers  of  the 
United  States  may  be  impeached  for  "treason,  bribery 
and  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors."  The 
charges  are  brought  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  Senate  acts  as  the  trial  court  and  if  two-thirds 
vote  for  conviction,  the  officer  is  removed.  No  presi- 
dent or  vice-president  has  ever  been  removed  from 
office.  Owing  to  political  differences,  President  John- 
son was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  tried  by  'the  Senate  in  1867  and  only  one  vote 
was  lacking  for  a  conviction. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  205 

Governors  and  elective  officers  of  states  are  in 
most  states  subject  to  impeachment.  In  some  states, 
the  House  of  Representatives  brings  the  charges 
and  the  Senate  tries  the  case;  in  others,  the  Supreme 
Court  tries  the  case;  and  in  New  York,  the  Senate 
and  the  highest  court — the  court  of  appeals — sit  as 
the  trial  court.  County  and  city  officers  may  also 
be  impeached.  The  process  is  usually  carried  on  be- 
fore the  courts  of  the  county  or  district.  In  any 
case,  conviction  means  removal  from  office. 

Impeachment  is  a  very  severe  as  well  as  a  slow  and 
difficult  process  and  is  resorted  to  only  in  grave 
cases.  It  is  not  a  satisfactory  method  of  holding 
officials  to  account  in  ordinary  cases.  Serious  crimes 
usually  have  to  be  charged.  An  officer  may  be 
wholly  incompetent  and  yet  honest  and  he  could  not 
be  charged  with  offenses  of  such  a  character  as  to 
warrant  impeachment.  A  simpler  method  has  been 
sought  and  many  states  and  cities  have  adopted  the 
recall  as  a  means  of  discharging  faithless  and  incom- 
petent officials. 

The  Recall. — The  recall  is  a  method  by  which  the 
people  may  at  any  time  take  a  vote  on  the  question 
whether  an  official  shall  be  discharged.  The  method 
followed  is  in  most  cases  as  follows :  A  certain  per- 
centage of  the  voters — usual  twenty-five  per  cent. — 
sign  a  petition  asking  that  an  election  be  held  to  de- 
termine whether  a  certain  officer  shall  be  removed 
from  office.  The  petition  must  state  the  causes  for  re- 
moval. The  officer  has  a  right  to  answer  the  charges. 


206  OUR  AMERICA 

Candidates  are  nominated  against  the  official.  The 
election  -is  held,  and  if  a  majority  vote  against  the 
accused  official,  he  is  thereby  removed  and  the  can- 
didate securing  the  largest  number  of  votes  is  de- 
clared elected.  In  practise,  it  is  usually  required  that 
a  man  be  given  a  chance  of  at  least  one  or  two 
years  before  any  recall  can  be  started  and  if  the  at- 
tempt is  made  once  and  fails,  then  no  further  attempt 
can  be  made  during  his  term. 

The  recall  has  the  advantage  of  giving  the  people 
a  close  rein  on  their  officers.  It-  is  a  constant  spur 
to  the  official  to  satisfy  the  desires  of  his  employer — 
the  people.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  subject 
to  unfair  use  by  political  enemies  who  trump  up 
charges — perhaps  against  reasonably  good  officers. 
An  official  may  be  elected  by  one  political  party  and 
very  soon,  perhaps,  be  compelled  to  defend  himself 
at  a  recall  election  forced  by  the  other  party  for 
purely  partisan  purposes.  It  is  the  abuse  of  the  re- 
call and  not  its  use  that  is  unfair. 

Removal  by  the  Governor. — Another  method  of 
discharging  officers  elected  by  the  people  as  their 
employees  is  .that  of  removal  by  some  higher  official 
for  a  cause  after  a  hearing.  Thus  the  county  sheriff, 
mayors  of  cities,  and  certain  other  local  officers  in 
New  York  may  be  removed  by  the  governor.  In 
many  of  the  states,  similar  powers  are  exercised  as 
to  certain  officials  by  the  governor.  Charges  are 
made  in  such  cases  to  the  governor,  who  makes  an 
investigation,  gives  the  official  a  chance  to  present 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  207 

his  case  and  then  decides  the  matter.  This  is  a'n 
easy  method  of  making  charges,  but  the  charge  must 
be  quite  serious  to  get  consideration  from  a  fair 
governor.  It  was  intended  against  the  corrupt 
official  and  not  against  the  man  who  is  incompetent 
or  who  is  not  so  good  as  he  ought  to  be. 

Removal  of  Subordinates. — When  we  come  to  the 
officers  and  employees  appointed  by  the  elected  of- 
ficials, the  method  of  discharging  is  comparatively 
simple.  The  man  who  appoints  usually  has  the  power 
to  discharge.  So  much  political  favoritism  has  at 
times  come  in,  however,  in  causing  competent  em- 
ployees to  be  discharged  and  incompetent,  or  at  least 
not  so  competent,  employees  to  be  put  in  their  places, 
that  restrictions  have  gradually  been  placed  on  the 
power  to  remove.  "No  removals  except  for  cause" 
is  coming  to  be  the  rule  in  progressive  states  and 
cities  and  in  the  national  service. 

The  president  of  the  United  States,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Senate,  appoints  the  members  of  his 
cabinet  and  a  vast  number  of  other  officers.  The 
cabinet  being  his  personal  advisors,  the  president 
has  the  right  to  appoint  whom  he  pleases  and  to  re- 
move them  whenever  they  are  not  in  accord  with 
him.  The  same  may  be  said  with  reference  to  many 
other  officers  in  important  departments.  The  presi- 
dent may,  therefore,  remove  any  member  of  the  cab- 
inet and  many  other  officers  without  giving  any 
cause.  Since  he  may  remove  the  chiefs  of  depart- 
ments without  cause,  it  gives  him  power  to  cause 


208  OUR  AMERICA 

the  removal  of  many  of  the  subordinates  simply  by 
directing  the  chief  of  the  department  to  remove  them. 
The  governor  may,  likewise,  remove  officials  ap- 
pointed by  him,  but  usually  he  must  prove  the  cause 
of  removal. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  is  the  usual  method  by  which  employers  dismiss 
employees  ? 

Why  can  not  the  methods  usually  employed  in  business 
be  used  to  discharge  government  officers  and  employees  ? 

Why  is  the  method  of  impeachment  of  officers  inade- 
quate ? 

What  dangers  arise  from  giving  an  officer  arbitrary 
power  to  dismiss  employees  ? 

What  defects  of  the  recall  method  can  be  mentioned? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  the  recall  ? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  there  should  be  no  removals  from  public 
employment  except  for  cause  after  a  hearing  on  the  charges. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Vol.  2,  Chap.  LXV  "Spoils." 
Ray,    Introduction    to    Political    Parties    and    Practical 

Politics. 
Chap.   XVII   "The  Responsibility  of   Public   Officers, 

Their  Removal  by  Impeachment  and  Recall." 
Woodburn,  Political  Parties  and  Problems  in  the  United 

States. 

Chap.  XXII  "The  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recalh 
The  Oregon  Experiment." 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  209 

Munro,  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall. 

Chap.  XII. 

Chap.  XIII. 

Chap.  XIV. 

Chap.  XV. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Recall. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Civil  Service  Reform  Association. 

United  States  Civil  Service  Commission. 

State  or  City  Civil  Service  Commission  (if  there  is  one). 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
LAW-MAKING  BODIES 

First  in  importance  in  the  process  of  conducting 
our  affairs  is  the  determining  of  the  will  of  the  peo- 
ple and  its  declaration  by  authority,  or  the  making 
of  laws.  Whatever  we  propose  to  provide  for, 
whether  it  be  the  building  of  a  road,  a  schoolhouse, 
or  sewage  system,  either  the  people  or  some  one 
having  authority  from  them  must  first  decide  to  do 
it,  then  provide  for  meeting  the  cost  and  declare  how 
it  shall  be  done. 

The  Process  of  Making  Laws. — This  process  of 
legislation  is  carried  on  in  this  country  by  several 
agencies.  What  the  country  as  a  whole  shall  do,  is 
determined  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States; 
what  the  state  shall  do,  is  determined  by  the  state 
legislature ;  what  the  city  shall  do,  ^is  determined  by 
the  city  council  or  the  city  commission.  In  every 
case,  these  bodies  are  made  up  of  representatives  of 
the  people  selected  by  the  people. 

Congress. — Congress  is  composed  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  consists  of  ninety-six  members,  two  from 
each  state  elected  by  the  people  of  the  state.  For- 
merly, they  were  elected  by  the  state  legislatures, 

210 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  211 

but  it  was  found  that  they  did  not  represent  the  peo- 
ple closely  enough  and  they  were  made  elective  by 
the  people.  The  Senate  was  supposed  to  be  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  states,  hence,  an  equal  number 
was  given  to  each  state  on  the  theory  that  the  states 
were  equal  regardless  of  size.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives consists  at  present  of  four  hundred  and 
thirty-five  members  elected  from  districts  into  which 
each  state  is  divided. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives. — After  each 
census,  Congress  determines  how  many  members 
there  shall  be  in  the  House  and  fixes  the  number  that 
shall  be  elected  from  each  state  on  the  basis  of  popu- 
lation. At  present,  one  representative  is  elected  for 
each  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  people,  but  as 
each  state  has  at  least  one  representative,  it  happens 
that  such  member  might  be  elected  to  represent  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  people,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  Nevada  which  has  only  about  sixty  thou- 
sand population.  An  exact  apportionment  is  of 
course  impossible,  so  the  effort  is  to  make  as  nearly 
equal  distribution  as  possible.  After  Congress  has 
determined  how  many  members  are  to  be  elected 
from  each  state,  the  state  legislature  divides  the  state 
into  districts  as  nearly  equal  in  population  as  practi- 
cable. 

Sessions  of  Congress. — Congress  meets  every  year 
on  the  first  Monday  in  December.  The  session,  be- 
ginning in  the  odd  years,  lasts  as  long  as  there  is 
business  to  do.  The  session  in  the  other  years  ends 


212  OUR  AMERICA 

March  fourth  following,  because  the  terms  of  office  of 
the  representatives  and  a  part  of  the  senators  expire 
on  that  date  and  a  new  Congress  comes  into  office. 
The  president  may  call  the  Congress  together  in 
special  session  whenever  he  desires.  Representatives 
are  elected  for  two  years  and  senators  for  six  years. 
The  terms  of  the  senators  are  so  arranged  that  about 
one-third  go  out  of  office  every  two  years. 

Powers  of  Congress.— Congress  is  the  body  to 
determine  the  will  of  the  whole  people  and  declare  it 
in  laws  on  the  subjects  over  which  the  federal  gov- 
ernment has  control.  We  have  already  seen  that 
these  powers  have  to  do  principally  with  foreign  af- 
fairs: the  means  of  defense — the  army  and  navy; 
trade  among  the  states  and  with  foreign  countries; 
building  of  public  buildings  such  as  post-offices,  court- 
houses and  custom  houses,  and  of  public  works  such 
as  harbor  and  river  improvements  to  aid  navigation; 
the  operation  of  post-offices  and  certain  other  gov- 
ernment enterprises  such  as  irrigation  works,  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  the  Alaskan  railway;  the  care  and 
disposal  of  public  lands;  dealings  with  the  Indians; 
educational  work  in  agriculture,  road  making,  educa- 
tional methods;  and  the  soldiers'  pension  system. 
The  power  of  Congress  is  very  great  because  of  the 
size  of  the  nation  and  its  enormous  interests.  Con- 
gress is  powerful,  too,  because  it  may  regulate  all 
traffic  between  the  states.  Thus,  while  it  would 
have  no  authority  over  matters  wholly  within  a  sin- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  213 

gle  state,  it  can  prevent  any  product  from  being 
taken  from  state  to  state.  As  an  example,  it  can  not 
stop  the  existence  of  a  saloon  in  a  state  but  it  can 
prevent  liquor  from  being  sent  into  any  state. 

Because  of  this  power  to  regulate  all  traffic  be- 
tween states,  Congress  can  prevent  the  production  of 
impure  foods  and  drugs  by  requiring  that  all  goods 
shipped  from  state  to  state  be  inspected  for  purity; 
they  can  prevent  the  shipment  of  liquor  or  the  prod- 
ucts of  prison  labor  from  state  to  state.  Recently  it 
has  been  proposed  that  any  goods  manufactured  by 
child  labor  be  prohibited  from  being  sent  from  one 
state  to  another.  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  this 
power  is  effective  because  under  modern  conditions 
a  large  part  of  the  goods  we  use,  go  from  one  state 
to  another. 

Congress  can  likewise  exercise  great  power  in 
cases  of  animal  disease  by  making  laws  for  quaran- 
tine against  disease.  When  there  is  an  epidemic  of 
animal  disease  in  a  state  or  a  community,  the  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry  at  Washington  has  power 
from  Congress  to  prevent  any  shipment  of  animals 
from  the  infected  region  into  another  state. 

The  State  Legislatures. — Every  one  of  the  forty- 
eight  states  has  a  legislature  consisting  of  two  houses 
to  pass  laws.  One  house  is  called  the  Senate  and 
the  other  is  usually  called  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. They  vary  in  number  of  members  in  each 
state.  Some  states  still  cling  to  large  membership. 


214  OUR  AMERICA 

The  usual  number  is  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  in  the  House  and  from  twenty-five  to 
fifty  in  the  Senate. 

Powers  of  State  Legislatures. — The  powers  are 
about  the  same  in  all  states.  The  legislature  has 
power  over  everything  which  is  not  given  to  Con- 
gress, that  is,  after  deducting  the  express  powers 
given  to  Congress,  all  the  other  things  which  the 
people  have  to  do  for  themselves  are  in  the  hands  of 
the  state  legislature,  except  where  either  the  United 
States  or  state  constitution  has  expressly  declared 
that  the  legislature  shall  not  have  a  certain  power  or 
when  the  state  constitution  has  expressly  given  power 
to  cities  over  certain  of  their  own  affairs,  in  which  case 
the  state  legislature  can  not  interfere.  These  limita- 
tions are  few,  however,  and  the  legislatures  of  most 
states  have  a  wide  range  of  powers  covering  such 
matters  as  keeping  order,  the  control  of  property, 
the  settlement  of  estates,  education,  charities,  roads, 
regulation  of  business,  control  of  public  utilities,  etc. 
Measured  by  its  direct  importance  to  the  people  in 
their  every-day  affairs,  the  work  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture is  more  important  to  them  than  the  work  of 
Congress. 

Apportionment  of  Members  of  State  Legislatures. 
— Members  of  the  state  legislature  in  both  houses 
are  elected  from  districts  which  are  as  nearly  equal 
in  population,  or  in  some  cases  equal  in  voters,  as 
possible.  The  theory  of  representation  is  always 
that  each  representative  represents  an  equal  number 


Copyright  by  G.  V.  Buck,  Washington,  D.  C. 
U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwoovl 
U.  S.  Senate  Chamber 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  215 

of  people.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  equality. 
We  have  seen  that  each  state  elects  two  senators  in 
the  United  States  Congress  regardless  of  size.  The 
state  of  Rhode  Island  has  one  senator  in  the  state 
senate  from  each  town  (township)  whether  it  is  a 
country  township  with  only  a  few  people  or  the  city 
of  Providence  with  over  two  hundred  thousand  peo- 
pie. 

Generally  speaking,  the  principle  of  equal  repre- 
sentation is  followed.  The  states  are  divided  into 
senatorial  districts  and  representative  districts  ac- 
cording to  population.  The  districts,  usually,  follow 
county  lines.  If  a  county  is  entitled  to  more  than 
one  senator  or  representative,  it  is  subdivided.  If 
one  county  is  not  entitled  to  a  member,  it  is  joined 
with  a  neighboring  county.  Since  the  districts  fol- 
low county  lines,  it  is  not  possible  to  get  an  exact 
equality,  but  a  reasonable  equality  is  all  that  fairness 
requires. 

The  districts  are  fixed  by  the  legislature  after  the 
United  States  census  or  after  a  state  census.  The  dis- 
tricts are  readjusted  every  few  years — usually  every 
ten  years.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  such  changes 
must  be  made  frequently  because  population  shifts 
so  rapidly.  The  growth  of  cities  makes  great  changes 
in  a  few  years.  The  importance  of  changes  is  aptly 
illustrated  from  the  history  of  England  where,  for 
many  years,  up  to  1832,  no  changes  had  been  made 
in  the  districts  from  which  members  of  Parliament 
were  elected.  The  result  was  that  some  great  cities 


216  OUR  AMERICA 

had  no  members  while  in  some  places  which  elected 
members  there  were  few  people  left.  The  same  condi- 
tion exists  in  Germany  to-day  in  the  representation  of 
the  cities  in  the  Reichstag — the  legislative  body  of 
the  empire. 

Gerrymandering. — In  order  to  get  political  advan- 
tage the  divisions  of  the  state  into  congressional, 
senatorial,  representative,  or  assembly  districts,  or 
of  the  city  into  wards,  is  often  so  made  as  to  give 
the  advantage  to  the  party  making  the  districts.  This 
is  called  "gerrymandering."  The  usual  method  is 
to  group  all  of  the  territory  which  is  strongly  of  the 
opposite  party  together  and  let  those  districts  be 
conceded  to  that  party.  Then  the  rest  of  the  dis- 
tricts will  be  safe. 

City  Councils  or  Commissions. — In  the  cities,  the 
body  which  determines  the  will  of  the  people  is  the 
city  council,  or  the  city  commission,  as  it  is  called  in 
cities  having  what  is  known  as  the  commission  form 
of  government.  In  early  times,  the  city  council  was 
modeled  on  the  state  legislatures  and  there  were  two 
houses,  corresponding  to  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives.  This  has  been  rapidly  changing, 
and  now  there  are  very  few  cities  which  have  two 
houses.  The  modern  way  is  to  put  all  power  into 
the  hands  of  a  council  of  one  house  or  a  commission 
of  three  or  five  members  who  determine  what  shall 
be  done. 

Powers  of  the  City  Council  or  Commission. — In 
order  to  understand  the  work  which  the  city  council 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  217 

has  to  clo,  we  must  consider  the  relation  of  the  city 
to  the  state.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  city  is 
organized  under  state  laws  to  do  the  special  work 
which  the  city  needs  to  have  done  for  itself.  In 
most  of  the  states,  the  legislature  has  prescribed 
specifically  the  powers  of  the  cities,  but  this  has  been 
so  unfair  to  the  cities  that  the  idea  of  home  rule,  or 
the  right  of  the  people  of  a  city  to  do  all  things 
which  concern  them  alone,  has  been  accepted  as  the 
best  plan. 

Where  the  legislatures  prescribe  city  powers  spe- 
cifically, the  city  councils  can  do  only  the  things  which 
the  state  legislature  has  authorized  them  to  do. 
Under  this  system,  a  city  council  may  not  pave  its 
own  streets  unless  the  state  legislature  has  express- 
ly authorized  it,  and  then  only  in  the  exact  way 
stated  by  the  legislature.  Under  home  rule,  the  city 
councils  may  do  anything  which  concerns  the  city 
and  is  necessary  for  its  welfare  unless  it  is  specifi- 
cally prohibited.  This  is  the  logical  system.  Those 
things  which  concern  the  city  only,  ought  to  be  left 
to  the  city  to  do;  those  things  which  can  not  be  done 
by  the  city  alone  or  which  concern  more  than  the 
people  of  one  city,  should  be  done  or  controlled  by 
the  state  legislature;  and  those  things  which  con- 
cern more  than  one  state  and  can  not  be  done  by  one 
state,  should  be  done  by  the  nation. 

Apportionment  of  Members  of  City  Council  or 
Commission. — Members  of  city  councils  are  often 
elected  from  wards  of  the  city,  but  it  is  becoming  the 


218  OUR  AMERICA 

practise  to  have  all  the  people  of  a  city  vote  for  each 
member.  This  is  the  case  in  all  cities  having  the 
commission  form  of  government.  When  the  election 
is  by  wards,  the  same  principle  of  equality  of  repre- 
sentation is  followed/  Each  ward  is  supposed  to 
have  an  equal  number  of  people  and  each  member, 
therefore,  represents  an  equal  number. 

Counties  and  Townships. — Counties  and  town- 
ships are  mere  districts  of  the  state.  They  carry 
out  the  laws  of  the  state  as  they  apply  to  their  own 
territory.  The  people  of  counties  and  townships 
do  not  determine  their  own  wills  through  a  legisla- 
tive body,  except  in  very  minor  matters.  The  law 
for  them  is  laid  down  by  the  state  legislature  and 
what  they  do  in  taking  care  of  their  own  affairs  is 
done  according  to  the  state  law.  Counties  and  town- 
ships build  many  works  for  common  benefit  and  do 
many  things,  but  they  are  nearly  all  done  subject  to 
the  details  of  the  state  law.  The  officers  and  boards 
are  not  legislative  officers,  but  executive  or  adminis- 
tratives  bodies  which  we  shall  consider  in  a  later 
chapter.  There  is  a  movement  taking  form  to  give 
home  rule  to  counties  so  that  they  may  be  free  to 
do  the  work  which  concerns  them  in  their  own  way. 
This  would  be  valuable  to  the  large  and  populous 
counties;  and  a  few  counties  in  California  already 
have  home  rule. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  219 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

How  many  representatives  in  the  United  States  House 
of  Representatives  are  elected  from  your  state?  Who  is 
your  congressman?  When  was  he  elected?  When  does 
his  term  expire?  Who  are  the  United  States  senators 
from  your  state  ? 

Take  a  map  of  your  state  and  indicate  the  boundaries 
of  your  congressional  district.  Also  indicate  the  other  con- 
gressional districts. 

Are  the  districts  nearly  equal  in  population  ? 

Why  should  representative  districts  be  equal  in  popula- 
tion? 

On  the  map,  indicate  also  the  senatorial  district  from 
which  your  state  senator  is  elected.  Also  indicate  the 
district  from  which  your  representative  in  the  state  legis- 
lature is  elected. 

How  many  members  are  there  in  the  state  Senate  of  your 
state  ?  In  the  House  of  Representatives  or  assembly  ?  What 
is  their  term  of  office?  Salary?  Do  you  know  the  name 
of  your  senator  and  representative  in  the  state  legislature? 

How  many  members  are  in  your  city  council  (if  you 
live  in  a  city)  ?  Are  they  elected  by  the  whole  city  or 
by  districts?  If  by  districts,  indicate  on  a  map  of  the 
city  the  boundaries  of  the  district. 

What  is  the  total  number  of  persons  whom  a  voter  in 
your  community  helps  to  elect  to  make  laws  in  city,  state 
and  nation? 

Why  is  it  important  for  the  citizens  to  know  the  powers 
of  each  law-making  body — the  city  council,  state  legislature, 
and  Congress? 

Make  a  list  of  the  things  which  affect  your  community 
that  the  city  does;  that  the  state  legislature  does;  that 
Congress  does.  (Confine  this  to  things  in  which  you  have 
had  experience.) 


220  OUR  AMERICA 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Resolved  that  the  work  of  the  state  legislature  is  of 
more  consequence  to  our  welfare  than  the  work  of  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States. 

Resolved  that  the  work  of  the  city  council  or  commission 
is  of  more  consequence  to  our  welfare  than  the  work  of 
the  state  legislature.  (For  city  discussion.) 


WHERE  TO  FIND  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Reinsch,  American  Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods. 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 
Chap.  X  "The  Senate." 

Chap.  XIII  "The  House  of  Representatives/' 
Chap.  XV  "The  Committees  of  Congress." 
Chap.  XL  "State  Governments — The  Legislature." 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Appendix,  Article  I. 
Powers  of  Congress. 

The  state   constitution   of   your   state,  article  relating  to 
powers  of  the  legislature. 

The  city  charter  of  your  city. 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

The  senators  from  your  state  and  representatives  from 

your  district  in  Congress. 

The  state  senator  and  representative  from  your  district. 
State  Legislative  Reference  Department  or  similar  body. 
Members  of  the  city  council  or  commission. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
HOW  LAWS  ARE  MADE 

In  the  preceding  chapter,  the  subject  of  law-mak- 
ing bodies  was  discussed.  We  shall  now  consider 
the  way  these  bodies  work  and  the  way  in  which  laws 
are  adopted  and  become  part  of  the  rules  which  guide, 
control  and  help. 

Custom  and  Law. — It  will  make  the  matter  clearer 
if  we  first  fully  understand  what  we  mean  by  law 
and  particularly  what  we  mean  by  written  law,  which 
is  the  kind  that  our  legislative  bodies  make.  Law  is 
a  rule  laid  down  by  those  in  authority,  which  every 
one  must  follow.  In  this  country,  that  authority  is 
the  people  either  acting  directly  through  the  initia- 
tive or  through  representatives  in  the  state  legisla- 
tures or  United  States  Congress,  city  councils  or  com- 
missions. Formerly,  law  was  merely  custom,  and 
even  yet  many  of  our  most  binding  laws  are  custom. 
In  many  states,  it  is  custom  that  a  person  turn  to  the 
right  when  meeting  another,  yet  everybody  does  it 
and  any  one  would  be  blamed  who  failed  to  follow 
the  custom. 

In  early  times,  also,  custom  was  sufficient  in  pro- 
viding for  public  needs.  If  a  building  were  needed 
for  common  uses,  all  joined  and  contributed  labor 

221 


222  OUR  AMERICA 

and  material  in  fair  proportions.  If  a  road  was  to  be 
built  or  maintained,  custom  caused  it  to  be  done  by 
those  who  benefited  by  it.  But  as  public  building 
and  works  increased,  the  community  had  to  have 
better  organization  and  as  work  became  more  spec- 
ialized, the  people  contributed  money  instead  of  join- 
ing to  do  the  work.  The  result  was  that  the  law 
under  which  the  work  was  carried  on  had  to  be  writ- 
ten out ;  and  the  more  complex  the  work  became  the 
more  detail  was  needed  in  the  law.  So,  to-day,  we 
have. elaborate  laws  in  each  state  governing  the  con- 
struction of  roads,  streets,  bridges,  public  buildings, 
drainage  works  and  so  on. 

Let  us  take  an  illustration  which  will  show  another 
reason  for  making  laws;  the  subject  of  fish  and 
game.  When  fish  and  game  were  plentiful,  no  re- 
strictions either  by  custom  or  law  were  placed  upon 
hunting  and  fishing.  Men  caught  and  killed  all  they 
pleased.  Finally,  in  many  parts,  game  and  fish  be- 
came scarce.  Some  means  had  to  be  taken  to  pro- 
tect them  or  else  there  would  soon  be  none  at  all. 
The  people  soon  passed  laws  to  prohibit  hunting  and 
fishing  except  in  certain  seasons,  and  later  in  some 
places  prohibited  any  person  from  taking  more  than 
a  certain  amount  of  fish  and  game.  At  the  same 
time,  they  provided  means  to  hatch  fish  and  breed 
game  to  keep  up  the  supply. 

Progress  Makes  New  Laws  Necessary. — On 
many  subjects,  progress  has  made  necessary  the 
writing  out  of  laws  because  custom  was  not  suffi- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  223 

cient  for  the  time.  The  coming  of  the  railroad  made 
many  new  laws  necessary;  the  street  railway,  inter- 
urban  railroad,  automobile,  telephone,  telegraph  and 
moving-picture  shows,  all  made  necessary  new  rules 
or  laws  to  govern  the  new  conditions  created  by 
them. 

Progress  in  education  mates  the  people  demand 
better  things  and  a  whole  new  lot  of  laws  are  need- 
ed to  meet  the  demands  of  a  better  educated  people. 
One  by  one,  the  worst  evils  of  vice  and  crime  are 
being  regulated  and  suppressed  by  the  people  through 
laws.  Wherever  custom  has  not  been  strong 
enough  to  keep  a  bad  thing  from  being  done,  the 
people  have  acted  through  law  to  prevent  it. 

The  legislatures  meet  to  deal  with  the  new  condi- 
tions which  arise  through  new  laws  and  to  make 
changes  in  the  old  laws  which  experience  has  shown 
to  be  unsatisfactory.  They  also  provide  for  any  new 
public  works  which  progress  may  demand. 

City  Councils  and  Commissions. — City  councils 
or  commissions  meet  frequently  in  most  cities.  Us- 
ually, meetings  are  held  every  week  or  every  two 
weeks,  except  during  vacation  periods.  The  mem- 
bers are  on  the  ground,  therefore,  to  handle  a  situa- 
tion as  it  arises.  By  their  rules,  a  measure  may  us- 
ually be  introduced  at  one  meeting  and  passed  at  the 
succeeding  meeting  or  the  second  meeting  after- 
ward. When  a  measure  is  introduced  in  the  coun- 
cil, it  is  referred  to  a  committee  which  is  supposed 
to  make  an  investigation  of  it  and  to  get  the  views 


224 


OUR  AMERICA 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  225 

of  people  who  desire  to  express  an  opinion.  There 
is  not,  usually,  very  much  formality  about  the  action 
of  the  city  council.  In  its  action,  it  is  more  like  a 
school  board  or  the  board  of  directors  of  a  business. 
In  many  cities  which  do  not  have  home  rule,  the 
public  takes  little  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  city 
council,  except  on  a  few  far-reaching  subjects  such 
as  measures  for  the  construction  of  important  works 
requiring  the  spending  of  large  sums  of  money,  or 
the  granting  of  rights  in  the  streets  to  companies 
operating  gas,  water,  electric  lignt,  heat  and  electric 
railway  companies.  The  lack  of  interest  is  the  most 
important  cause  of  bad  .government  in  cities. 

The  power  of  the  council  usually  consists  in  pass- 
ing traffic  ordinances,  health  regulations,  food  in- 
spection rules,  and  in  prohibiting  this  or  that  prac- 
tise harmful  to  the  safety,  morals,  health  or  welfare 
of  the  citizens. 

State  Legislatures.— State  legislation  is  the  most 
important  to  us  because  of  the  range  of  subjects  with 
which  it  deals  and  which  affect  us  so  closely.  Where 
there  is  one  subject  of  federal  legislation  of  direct 
interest  to  us  there  are  a  score  of  subjects  of  state 
legislation  which  affect  us  directly.  Moreover  the 
most  important  city,  county  and  township  matters 
are  subjects  of  state  laws. 

The  amount  of  business  which  confronts  the  legis- 
latures of  the  states  every  time  they  meet  is  very 
great.  This  is  the  result  of  progress  and  of  educa- 
tion upon  the  needs  of  the  time.  The  members  are 


226  OUR  AMERICA 

confronted  with  thousands  of  proposals  for  changes 
in  laws  or  for  new  laws. 

Where  do  Proposals  for  New  Laws  Come  From? 

— From  what  source  do  these  proposals  come  ? 

First — The  member,  himself,  has  ideas  of  changes 
which  he  wishes  to  make.  In  going  over  his  district 
and  conferring  with  men  of  all  kinds,  ideas  gained 
take  form  in  definite  plans.  He  often  advocates  cer- 
tain things  in  order  to  win  votes  and  then  he  feels 
in  duty  bound  to  try  to  put  those  things  into  laws. 

Second — Some  public  calamity,  such  as  a  flood  or 
an  epidemic,  may  have  called  attention  strongly  to 
the  need  for  new  laws.  The  thought  may  be  in 
everybody's  mind  and  the  legislature  is  expected  to 
express  it  in  law. 

Third — Individuals  or  groups  or  societies  which 
have  been  working  on  problems  of  public  welfare 
such  as  child  labor,  playgrounds,  public  health,  or 
charities  bring  forth  the  results  of  their  thought, 
study  and  experience  for  new  laws  in  order  to  better 
the  conditions  which  they  have  discovered. 

Fourth — Public  officials  charged  with  the  duty  of 
doing  the  work  provided  for  by  law,  may  have  dis- 
covered from  their  experience  that  changes  or  new 
laws  are  needed.  From  their  practical  experience, 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  wise  proposals  will  be 
made. 

Fifth — Previous  legislatures  may  have  worked  on 
questions  and  finding  them  too  complex  may  have 
appointed  commissions  or  committees  to  study  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  227 

questions.  These  eommittees  make  reports  which 
serve  as  guides  to  the  legislators  at  the  next  session. 

Sixth — Private  interests  which  seek  to  gain  some 
advantage  by  change  in  a  law  present  many  bills, 
some  of  them  fair  and  asking  only  what  they  have 
a  right  to  ask,  but  often  seeking  unfair  advantages  at 
the  expense  of  the  public. 

Proposals  coming  from  all  of  these  sources  focus 
on  the  legislature  when  it  convenes.  There  are  all 
sorts  of  measures  coming  from  all  sorts  of  people. 
Many  of  the  proposals  are  unworkable,  many  have  a 
bad  object  and  would  result  badly,  many  are  con- 
trary to  the  Constitution  which  we  know  is  the 
supreme  law.  There  are  schemes  for  building  large 
public  works  or  giving  rights  to  others  to  build. 
There  are  plans  to  better  conditions  of  the  workers, 
to  prevent  child  labor,  to  provide  better  education, 
to  take  care  of  the  helpless,  to  punish  offenders,  to 
regulate  railroads  and  public  utilities,  to  protect 
health,  to  prevent  fires  and  other  losses,  and  to  do 
many  things  to  promote  the  public  welfare  besides 
the  schemes  to  give  to  private  individuals  advantages, 
which  many  fairly  or  unfairly, 'seek. 

Such  are  the  questions  which  confront  our  legis- 
lators when  they  meet.  Fully  one  hundred  thousand 
propositions  are  presented  in  the  forty-eight  states 
in  a  single  year  or  an  average  of  over  two  thousand 
to  a  state. 

Legislative  Information. — The  first  need  of  the 
members  is  for  information  upon  the  many  problems 


228  OUR  AMERICA 

which  confront  them.  Formerly  they  depended  upon 
the  chance  knowledge  of  members  and  interested  per- 
sons.- In  recent  years  the  idea  of  maintaining  a 
bureau  of  reference  or  information  has  been  adopted. 
These  bureaus,  which  are  usually  called  legislative 
reference  departments,  study  the  laws  of  the  state 
and  of  other  states,  gather  information  and  opinions 
about  the  workings  of  laws  and  compile  the  informa- 
tion in  a  form  which  the  legislator  can  use.  In  this 
way  the  experience  of  the  whole  country  is  brought 
to  the  aid  of  the  members.  The  mistakes  of  other 
states  as  well  as  their  successes  help  to  guide  the 
legislature  in  making  good  laws.  Nearly  every  state 
now  carries  on  some  legislative  reference  work  and 
many  of  the  states  are  doing  extensive  work  of  this 
kind. 

Committees. — To  handle  the  volume  of  business 
the  houses  of  the  legislature  are  divided  into  com- 
mittees usually  appointed  by  the  presiding  officers  or 
in  some  cases  appointed  by  a  committee  chosen  for 
the  purpose.  To  the  committee  on  health,  go  all 
matters  relating  to  public  health;  to  the  committee 
on  education,  all  matters  relating  to  education;  to  the 
committees  on  labor,  railroads,  drainage,  highways, 
the  propositions  relating  to  such  subjects.  This  is 
the  only  way  in  which  to  handle  so  much  business. 
Each  committee  has  thus  a  chance  to  study  deliber- 
ately the  matters  which  come  before  it. 

Form  and  Preparation  of  Bills. — The  propositions 
are  presented  in  the  form  of  bills  which  are  usually 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  229 

typewritten.  These  are  prepared  by  lawyers  or  other 
persons  skilled  in  writing  laws.  A  few  states  pro- 
vide bureaus  of  bill  drafting  or  put  such  duties  on 
the  legislative  reference  departments,  to  which  a 
member  can  bring  his  ideas,  and  have  them  prepared  in 
a  bill.  The  drafting  of  the  bill  is  very  important,  for 
an  omitted  or  changed  word  or  a  misplaced  comma 
may  change  the  meaning  materially.  Every  word 
must  be  used  with  precision  to  make  the  meaning 
clear.  An  example  will  make  this  plain.  It  was  once 
enacted  in  a  certain  state  that  wagons  having  broad 
tires  should  not  be  taxed.  But  what  did  the  word 
"broad  tires"  mean.  There  was  nothing  to  indicate 
and  the  law  had  no  force. 

Introduction  of  the  Bill. — After  the  bill  is  pre- 
pared, it  is  introduced  by  the  member  when  his  name 
or  county  is  called  on  roll-call.  It  is  read,  usually, 
by  the  title  only,  and  the  presiding  officer  refers  it 
to  the  proper  committee.  Perhaps  scores  of  bills  are 
introduced  at  the  same  time  by  other  members  and 
all  referred  to  committees.  The  first  work  is  thus 
shifted  to  the  committees. 

Action  by  the  Committee. — The  committees  which 
usually  consist  of  a  small  number  of  members — 
though,  in  some  states,  there  are  very  large  commit- 
tees— take  the  bills  referred  to  them  under  considera- 
tion and  hear  what  is  to  be  said  by  people  for  and 
against  them.  Often  great  public  hearings  are  held 
to  which  crowds  come  with  spokesmen  to  favor  or 
oppose  a  bill.  After  hearing  all  the  arguments  and 


230  OUR  AMERICA 

considering*  them,  the  committee  sends  the  bill  back 
to  the  house  with  its  recommendations  as  to  what 
the  house  should  do  with  it.  If  the  committee  op- 
poses it,  it  recommends  that  the  bill  be  indefinitely 
postponed.  If  the  house  accepts  that  report  the  bill 
is  thereby  killed.  If  the  committee  reports  in  favor 
of  passage  and  the  house  accepts  the  report,  the  bill 
begins  its  journey  on  the  floor  of  the  house. 

Procedure  in  the  Houses. — The  bill  comes  up  next 
on  second  reading  when  it  may  be  debated  and 
amended.  If  it  gets  past  this  stage,  it  is  engrossed — 
that  is,  written  out  with  all  changes,  which  have  been 
made  during  debate,  inserted.  In  most  states,  that 
means  writing  out  in  longhand.  The  next  time  it 
appears  it  is  ready  for  passage,  although  it  may  still 
be  amended  or  again  referred  to  a  committee  if 
enough  of  the  members  desire  it.  When  the  vote  is 
taken  the  members  vote  "aye"  or  "no"  and  the  vote 
is  recorded.  If  the  bill  receives  a  majority  of  all  the 
members  of  the  house  it  is  declared  passed  and  is 
then  sent  to  the  second  house  where  it  goes  through 
the  same  process.  Should  the  second  house  pass  the 
bill  with  changes,  it  must  go  back  to  the  first  house 
for  approval  of  the  changes.  If  the  changes  are  ac- 
cepted, the  bill  is  enrolled — prepared  in  final  form 
either  by  printing  or  in  some  special  form,  engraving, 
or  writing  out  in  longhand — and  is  then  ready  to  be 
presented  to  the  governor.  Should  the  first  house 
disagree  with  the  changes  made  by  the  other  house, 
a  conference  committee  of  the  two  houses  is  ap- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  231 

pointed  to  fix  up  the  differences  and  if  they  agree  and 
the  houses  approve,  the  bill  is  enrolled.  If  the  two 
houses  can  not  agree  the  bill  fails. 

The  Governor's  Action. — In  its  enrolled  form  the 
bill  is  presented  to  the  governor.  If  he  approves 
the  bill,  it  becomes  a  law.  If  he  disapproves  the 
bill,  he  vetoes  it  and  sends  it  back  to  the  house  where 
it  originated  with  his  reasons.  The  houses  may 
then  try  to  pass  it  over  his  veto,  and  if  they  succeed 
the  bill  becomes  a  law.  To  pass  a  bill  over  the  veto 
requires  merely  a  majority  vote  in  some  states,  while 
in  others  it  requires  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of 
the  members. 

The  Enrolled  Law. — The  enrolled  bill  passed  by 
the  houses,  when  signed  by  the  governor,  is  deposited 
in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  and  from  it 
copies  are  printed.  It  is  held  always  under  close 
watch' for  it  is  the  real  law.  Since  the  courts  look  to 
it  as  the  r&al  law,  it  is  very  important  that  it  be  abso- 
lutely correct.  If  any  one  by  design  or  by  careless- 
ness in  making  the  copy  should  change  a  word  or  a 
comma,  the  entire  meaning  might  be  changed  and 
there  would  be  no  help,  because  the  enrolled  act  as  it 
stands  is  the  law  even  though  there  may  be  mistakes 
in  it. 

Lobbyists. — During  the  course  of  a  bill  through 
the  houses  it  runs  into  many  pitfalls.  Forces  line 
up  for  and  against  it  if  it  is  a  matter  of  importance 
affecting  any  interest  either  for  good  or  ill.  The 
state  houses  swarm  with  representatives  of  those  who 


232  OUR  AMERICA 

are  for  or  against  measures.  Such  men  are  called 
lobbyists.  There  are  lobbyists  who  are  working  for 
the  public  welfare  and  those  who  are  seeking  private 
advantage.  Arguments  are  pressed  upon  the  mem- 
bers, personal  appeals  are  made  to  them,  and  often 
vicious  interests  seeking  advantages  use  money  and 
other  rewards  .to  get  the  members  to  vote  their  way. 
Politics,  business,  philanthropy  and  greed  sometimes 
enter  into  the  decision  which  the  members  must  make. 

Manipulation  of  Legislative  Machinery. — There 
are  pitfalls,  also,  in  the  machinery  provided.  The 
presiding  officer  has  great  power.  He  may  easily 
give  the  advantage  or  the  disadvantage  to  a  bill.  He 
may  refer  it  to  an  unfavorable  or  a  favorable  com- 
mittee whose  decision  goes  a  long  way  toward  the 
fate  of  the  bill.  He  may  delay  the  bill  to  a  favorable 
or  an  unfavorable  time  according  to  his  desires.  He 
may  favor  one  side  or  the  other  in  the  parliamentary 
maneuvers.  By  a  sudden  trick  when  the  friends  of 
a  bill  are  not  prepared,  a  bad  amendment  may  be 
made  or  the  bill  may  even  be  killed.  The  friends 
and  enemies  of  a  bill  have  to  be  on  constant  guard. 
They  must  know  the  rules  of  the  house  and  the  tricks 
of  parliamentary  law. 

The  chairman  of  the  committee  to  which  a  bill  is 
referred  is  also  in  a  position  to  help  or  hinder  a 
bill.  He  may  fail  to  call  his  committee  together  or 
to  present  the  bill  for  their  action.  He  may  pigeon- 
hole it — that  is,  keep  it  in  his  desk.  The  house  could, 
<  I  course,  order  him  to  report  it  out,  but  that  is  not 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  233 

very  often  done.  Under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  chairman  may  cause  delays  which  in  a 
short  session  injure  the  chances  of  a  bill. 

Legislation  in  Congress. — What  has  been  said  con- 
cerning the  methods  of  passing  laws  in  state  legis- 
latures applies  with  slight  changes  to  the  enactment 
of  laws  by  Congress.  There  are,  of  course,  many 
differences  in  detail,  but  the  general  methods  are  the 
same.  The  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  are 
divided  into  committees  for  the  same  purpose  that 
the  houses  of  the  state  legislature  have  their  com- 
mittees. Bills  come  from  the  same  kinds  of  sources 
and  are  prepared  in  the  same  form.  Congress  has 
thus  far  provided  no  facilities  to  help  in  the  difficult 
task  of  drafting  bills. 

Procedure  in  Congress. — Bills  are  introduced  by 
members,  referred  to  committees,  have  their  hear- 
ings, are  reported  back  favorably  or  unfavorably  and 
go  through  the  same  process  of  reading,  discussion, 
amendment  and  final  action  by  vote.  It  takes  a  ma- 
jority of  the  members  voting  on  a  bill  to  pass  it, 
instead  of  a  majority  of  all  the  members  of  the  body 
as  in  most  of  the  states.  A  small  number  may  pass 
a  bill  if  that  number  be  a  majority  of  a  quorum.' 
Every  bill  passed  must  receive  the  approval  of  the 
president.  If  he  vetoes  a  bill  it  may  be  passed  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  over  his  veto. 

Lobbyists  in  Congress. — Lobbyists  also  swarm 
around  Congress.  The  interests  at  stake  are  often 
vast,  involving  perhaps  the  regulation  of  such  great 


234  OUR  AMERICA 

corporations  as  the  railroads,  the  Beef,  Standard  Oil, 
or  Steel  Trusts.  Such  measures  as  the  reform  of  the 
banking  system  for  the  whole  country,  the  tariff  law 
affecting  hundreds  of  big  businesses,  the  anti-trust 
laws  aimed  at  bad  business,  bring  to  Washington 
great  numbers  of  men  who  represent  big  corpora- 
tions and  who  come  to  fight  any  laws  adverse  to 
these  interests. 

Committees  of  Congress. — The  committees  of  Con- 
gress are  more  deliberate  in  their  ways  than  the 
committees  of  state  legislatures.  A  majority  of  the 
bills  are  pigeonholed  by  the  chairmen  who  fail  to 
bring  the  matter  up  for  action.  Public  opinion  is  not 
so  forceful.  A  measure  -must  have  tremendous  force 
behind  it  to  arouse  the  whole  nation.  Only  a  few 
such  measures  come  up  in  a  session.  The  speaker 
exercises  as  great  and  in  some  cases  greater  power 
than  the  speaker  in  a  state  House  of  Representatives. 
A  few  members  who  have  had  long  experience,  know 
the  game  and  dominate  the  body  because  of  their 
knowledge  of  facts  and  methods.  The  actual  busi- 
ness is  carried  on  by  a  mere  handful  of  men. 

Faults  of  Legislative  Bodies  May  be  Corrected  by 
Intelligent  Criticism. — There  are  many  faults  and 
weaknesses  in  the  organization  and  methods  of  the 
city  council  or  commission,  Congress  and  the  state 
legislatures.  These  can  be  corrected  only  when 
people  understand  the  work  of  legislative  bodies  and 
begin  to  give  intelligent  criticism.  It  is  a  very  diffi- 
cult task  to  make  laws  under  the  most  favorable  con- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  235 

ditions.  Just  the  task  of  wording  them,  so  that  they 
will  not  only  be  understood  but  so  that  no  one  can 
pretend  to  misunderstand  them,  is  an  exacting  one. 

Added  to  that  task,  are  the  further  tasks  of  mak- 
ing laws  express  the  real  will  of  the  people,  making 
them  conform  to  the  Constitution  which  is  the 
supreme  law,  and  fitting  them  into  the  scheme  of 
things  without  causing  unreasonable  changes. 

The  Initiative. — In  making  laws,  representatives 
act  for  the  whole  people.  They  are  expected  to  enact 
the  will  of  the  people  into  law.  When  they  do  not  do 
so,  the  people  may  refuse  to  reelect  them,  but  this 
does  not  make  it  certain  that  their  successors  will  not 
do  likewise.  In  order  to  force  the  adoption  of  laws 
desired  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  the  initiative  has 
been  devised.  This  is  a  means  by  which  the  people 
propose  laws  themselves  and  submit  them  to  the 
voters  for  their  adoption  or  rejection.  A  petition  is 
first  presented  setting  forth  the  proposed  law,  signed 
by  a  number  of  people — usually  about  fifteen  per  cent, 
of  the  voters.  At  the  next  election,  or  at  a  special 
election,  the  question  is  put  on  the  ballot  and  if  a 
majority  of  the  voters  favor  it,  it  becomes  a  law.  The 
initiative  is  used  in  many  of  the  states  and  numerous 
cities. 

The  Referendum. — In  many  states,  when  the  legis- 
lature or  city  council  has  passed  a  law  which  the 
people  do  not  like,  they  may  defeat  it  by  the  refer- 
endum. A  petition  is  first  filed  demanding  that  the 
act  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people.  At  the  elec- 


236  OUR  AMERICA 

tion  it  is  submitted,  the  people  yote  upon  it  and  unless 
a  majority  favor  it,  the  law  does  not  take  effect.  The 
operation  of  the  initiative  and  referendum  is  effective 
when  only  a  few  important  matters  are  presented  to 
the  voters.  When  numerous  unimportant  matters 
are  being  voted  upon,  there  is  considerable  confusion. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

What  is  the  relation  between  custom  and  law? 

Show  how  custom  develops  into  law. 

Make  a  careful  examination  of  the  state  constitution  of 
your  state  and  make  a  report  on  the  provision  relating  to 
legislative  procedure. 

Do  you  know  of  any  condition  which  exists  in  your 
community  which  needs  correction  by  law? 

Give  some  concrete  examples  of  the  need  of  exact  lan- 
guage in  laws. 

Why  are  bills  written  out  in  longhand?  Is  there  any 
advantage  in  it? 

What  reasons  can  you  give  in  favor  of  the  requirement 
that  every  member  vote  "aye"  or  "no"  on  a  bill  and  have 
the  vote  recorded  in  the  journal  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "lobbyist"  ? 

Name  six  different  propositions  which  properly  come  be- 
fore the  city  council  of  your  city ;  six  which  properly  come 
before  the  state  legislature;  six  which  come  before  the 
Congress. 

Write  to  the  legislative  reference  department  of  your 
state  and  inquire  the  number  of  bills  introduced  at  the  last 
session  in  each  house  and  the  number  which  became  laws. 
Ask  also  for  a  list  of  the  subjects  upon  which  important 
laws  were  passed  at  the  last  session. 

Show  how  progress  makes  new  laws  necessary. 

Show  how  the  broader  education  of  the  people  causes  new 
laws  to  be  demanded. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  237 

Write  to  your  congressman  and  ask  for  copies  of  a  few 
bills  as  examples  of  the  forms  used  in  the  Senate  and 
House.  Ask  your  state  senator  or  representative  or  the 
legislative  reference  department  for  samples  of  bills  intro- 
duced in  the  state  legislature. 

What  is  the  value  of  giving  the  governor  and  president 
the  right  to  veto  bills? 

Discuss  the  importance  of  the  work  of  committees. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  sessions  of  the  committees  of  the  city 
council,  state  legislature  and  Congress  should  be  open  to 
the  public  and  that  the  proceedings  arid  votes  of  members 
should  be  recorded. 

Resolved  that  it  would  be  better  to  have  only  one  house 
of  the  state  legislature  and  Congress. 


WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER.  INFORMATION 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 
Vol.  1,  Chap.  X  "The  Senate." 

Chap.  XII  "The  Senate,  Its  Working  and  Influence." 
Chap.  XIII  "The  House  of  Representatives." 
Chap.  XIV  "The  House  at  Work." 
Chap.  XV  "The  Committees  of  Congress." 
Chap.  XVIII  "The  Relation  of  the  Two  Houses." 
Chap.  XXXIX  "Direct  Legislation  by  the  People." 
Chap.  XL  "State  Governments :  The  Legislature." 
Chap.  XLIV  "The  Working  of  State  Governments." 
Chap.  LI  "The  Workings  of  the  City  Government." 

McCall,  Business  of  Congress. 

Reinsch,  American  Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods. 
Discusses  both  national  and  state  legislatures. 

State  Constitution,  provisions  relating  to  legislative  pro- 
cedure. 


238  .        OUR  AMERICA 

U.  S.   Constitution,  provisions  relating  to  proceduce  of 

Congress. 

Rules  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
Rules  of  state  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Same  as  in  preceding  chapter 


CHAPTER  XX 

PUTTING  LAWS  INTO  EFFECT— THE 
EXECUTIVE 

The  making  of  laws  is  merely  the  beginning  in  the 
process  of  government.  The  writing  out  and  the  en- 
acting of  a  law  by  a  legislature  or  by  Congress  or  by  a 
city  council  is  important  only  if  it  is  carried  into  effect. 
To  declare  that  a  certain  thing  shall  or  shall  not  be 
done  does  not  amount  to  much  unless  there  are  means 
provided  to  make  sure  that  the  thing  is  done  or  is 
not  done. 

Law  Enforcement. — As  a  part,  therefore,  of  every 
law  there  must  be  provided,  if  it  does  not  already 
exist,  the  machinery  to  put  the  law  into  operation. 
That  machinery,  we  have  seen,  forms  the  executive 
department  of  the  government. 

The  Executive  Department  of  the  United  States. — 
In  the  government  of  the  United  States  the  executive 
department  consists  of  the  president,  the  ten  mem- 
bers of  his  cabinet  and  all  the  boards,  bureaus,  com- 
missions and  officers  working  under  them  who  do 
the  work  of  the  federal  government.  These  offices 
and  boards  have  been  created  from  time  to  time  as 
the  need  has  arisen  to  carry  into  effect  the  various 
laws  passed  by  Congress.  When  the  country  was 

239 


240  OUR  AMERICA 

small  in  the  days  of  Washington,  only  a  few  officials 
were  needed.  There  were  only  three  members  of  the 
cabinet,  secretary  of  state,  secretary  of  the  treasury 
and  secretary  of  war  and  navy.  The  duties  of  each 
are  indicated  by  the  title.  As  the  duties  of  each  office 
grew,  the  need  for  additional  ones  increased.  The 
secretary  of  the  navy  was  first  added  (1789)  and  all 
matters  relating  to  the  navy  were  taken  away  from 
the  War  Department.  Then  the  post-office  became 
so  important  that  in  1829  another  cabinet  office  was 
created — that  of  the  postmaster-general.  Next  the 
office  of  the  secretary  of  the  interior  was  created  in 
1849  to  look  after  the  public  lands  and  the  relations 
with  the  Indians.  The  attorney-general  became  a 
member  of  the  cabinet  in  1870,  although  the  office 
had  existed  outside  the  cabinet  from  the  beginning. 
By  1889  the  work  of  the  government  for  agriculture 
became  so  important  that  the  office  of  secretary  of 
agriculture  was  created.  A  few  years  later,  1903, 
the  questions  relating  to  commerce  and  labor  became 
so  important  that  a  ninth  member  was  added  called 
the  secretary  of  commerce  and  labor.  In  1913  this 
office  was  divided  and  two  secretaries  were  provided 
for — the  secretary  of  commerce  and  the  secretary 
of  labor.  Thus  there  are  ten  members  under  whom 
nearly  all  the  work  of  the  government  is.  carried  on. 
In  addition  to  the  cabinet,  a  few  independent  de- 
partments do  important  work.  The  Civil  Service 
Commission  is  not  directly  under  any  cabinet  officer 
but  it  is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  president.  Like- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  241 

wise,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  which 
regulates  the  railroads  is  not  under  any  department, 
nor  is  the  Trade  Commission,  created  in  1914,  or  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board  created  in  1914.  These  are 
appointed  by  the  president  and  subject  to  him  directly. 

With  these  and  a  few  minor  exceptions  all  of  the 
work  of  the  government  is  under  the  ten  members  of 
the  cabinet  who  in  turn  are  directly  responsible  to 
the  president.  The  president  is  thus  in  supreme 
control  of  the  entire  machinery  of  government.  He 
is  able  to  carry  out  the  duty  which  the  Constitution 
places  upon  him,  "to  see  that  the  laws  are  faithfully 
executed." 

Whenever  a  law  is  passed  by  Congress,  the  duty 
of  enforcing  it  is  usually  put  upon  some  office  already 
existing.  Thus  when  an  appropriation  is  made  to 
erect  a  public  building,  the  work  is  carried  out  under 
a  bureau  in  the  Department  of  the  Treasury.  A  law 
relating  to  the  postal  service  naturally  is  left  for 
enforcement  to  the  postmaster-general.  A  law  re- 
lating to  agriculture,  labor,  or  commerce,  is  left  to 
the  agriculture,  labor  or  commerce  department  as  the 
case  may  be. 

As  the  business  of  government  grows,  or  as  new 
matters  are  taken  up,  new  departments  or  offices  are 
created.  This  will  probably  continue  because  the 
business  of  government  is  expanding,  and  more  and 
more  things  are  being  done  by  the  government. 

The  Executive  Department  of  the  States. — The 
states  likewise  have  a  set  of  officers  who  enforce  the 


242  OUR  AMERICA 

laws  and  who  do  the  state's  work  and  they,  too,  add 
new  officers  from  time  to  time  as  new  work  requires. 

The  chief  officer  in  the  state  is  the  governor  who 
is  directed  by  the  state  constitution  to  see  that  the 
laws  of  the  state  are  faithfully  executed;  but  he  does 
not  have  the  power  to  do  so  which  is  given  to  the 
president.  We  have  seen  that  every  officer  in  the 
United  States  government  is  subject  to  the  president. 
The  governor  has  such  power  over  only  a  very  few  of 
the  officials  of  the  state  government.  Besides  the  gov- 
ernor, the  states  elect  a  number  of  officials  who  are 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  independent  of  the  governor. 

The  secretary  of  state,  treasurer,  auditor  or  comp- 
troller, attorney-general,  and  in  some  states  several 
other  officers,  are  elected  and  are  not  subject  to  the 
governor.  The  legislature,  in  passing  laws,  puts 
many  of  the  duties  of  enforcement  upon  these  officials. 
So  it  happens  that  authority  is  divided  and  while  the 
governor  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  enforcing  the 
laws,  he  has  not  the  power  like  the  president  to  do  so. 

Many  new  boards,  commissions  and  offices  are  be- 
ing created  to  do  new  work  which  the  state  under- 
takes. In  the  states  the  tendency  is  to  create  inde- 
pendent offices  instead  of  making  the  new  positions 
a  part  of  an  existing  office.  This  has  resulted  in  a 
great  number  of  boards,  commissions  and  offices  sub- 
ject but  slightly  to  the  governor,  who  makes  the  ap- 
pointments but  usually  may  not  remove  the  official. 

Since  power  is  so  divided  among  many  officials  the 
governor  is  not  in  a  position  to  see  that  the  laws  are 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  243 

faithfully  executed.  The  president  can  be  held 
directly  responsible  if  a  bad  condition  is  allowed  to 
exist  in  any  department  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment because  all  the  officers  are  subject  to  his  orders 
and  may  be  removed  by  him  for  disobedience,  but 
the  governor  can  not  be  held  responsible  for  condi- 
tions in  much  of  the  state  work  because  he  has  no 
control  over  most  of  the  officials. 

The  better  way  is  to  give  power  to  some  one  cen- 
tral official  like  the  governor  and  hold  him  respon- 
sible for  the  work  of  those  appointed  by  him.  That 
is  the  way  big  business  affairs  are  conducted.  Every 
big  business  has  a  general  manager  to  whom  all  de- 
partments of  the  business  are  responsible.  State  gov- 
ernments ought  to  profit  by  the  examples  of  business 
and,  also,  the  experience  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment. If  the  same  system  were  applied  to  the 
states  the  people  would  elect  only  a  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  and  all  other  officials  would  be 
appointed  by  the  governor  and  be  subject  to  his 
control. 

The  Executive  Department  of  Cities — The  Federal 
Plan. — The  cities  have  likewise  a  problem  of  provid- 
ing a  system  of  officials  and  workers  to  do  the  work 
which  the  city  has  to  do  and  to  carry  out  the  laws 
and  ordinances  which  are  enacted  for  the  common 
benefit.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  way  cities 
organize  their  work.  One  form  is  similar  to  the  plan 
of  the  United  States  government  and  is  called,  there- 
fore, the  federal  plan.  Under  this,  the  people  elect 


244  OUR  AMERICA 

a  mayor  and  perhaps  one  or  two  other  officers  and 
then  all  other  officials  are  appointed  by  the  mayor 
and  are  subject  to  his  control. 

The  Commission  Form. — During  the  last  fifteen 
years  the  commission  form  of  government  for  cities 
has  become  a  favorite  plan.  Under  this  form,  the 
people  elect  commissioners — usually  three  or  five — • 
and  give  them  complete  power  both  in  making  laws 
and  enforcing  them.  They  are  the  city  council  and 
the  executive  officials  all  in  one.  They  appoint  all 
the  city  officials  and  employees  and  have  control  over 
them. 

The  Business-Manager  Form. — A  modification  of 
this  plan  has  recently  come  into  favor  under  which 
the  commission  appoints  a  business  manager  who 
is  given  full  charge  over  the  whole  executive  force  of 
the  city.  This  is  like  a  business  corporation  where 
the  stockholders  elect  a  board  of  directors  and  the 
directors  elect  a  manager  who  conducts  the  business. 
In  the  city,  the  people  are  the  stockholders,  the  com- 
mission is  the  board  of  directors,  who  make  general 
plans  and  vote  the  money,  and  the  manager  has 
direct  charge  of  the  city's  business. 

The  work  of  the  city  is  so  largely  a  matter  of  busi- 
ness management  that  this  plan  of  business  organ- 
ization is  admirable.  The  building  of  streets,  sewers 
and  public  buildings,  the  cleaning  of  streets,  building 
of  playgrounds,  parks  and  boulevards,  the  manage- 
ment of  police  and  fire  departments,  water-works,  gas 
and  electric  light  plants  are  matters  which  require 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  245 

the  highest  grade  of  business  management.  The 
system  which  is  most  likely  to  be  successful  is  one 
which  centers  responsibility  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  a  business  corporation. 

Execution  of  Laws  by  Counties  and  Townships. — 
The  counties,  townships  and  other  districts  into 
which  the  states  are  divided  are  also  provided  with 
a  set  of  officials  to  do  the  work  which  the  law  assigns 
to  them.  The  counties,  townships  and  other  dis- 
tricts are  not  independent  districts  but  are  subdi- 
visions of  the  state.  These  divisions  are  made  for 
the  sake  of  convenience  in  the  accomplishment  of 
local  work.  They  do  not  make  laws  for  themselves 
but  they  do  the  work  which  is  needed  under  the  laws 
which  the  state  legislature  lays  down.  Thus,  the 
counties  and  townships  have  charge  of  the  building 
of  roads  for  local  needs,  but  they  act  according  to  the 
detailed  provisions  of  state  laws  in  doing  so  and  not 
according  to  their  own  pleasure. 

In  some  states,  the  county  has  important  duties  in 
connection  with  building  roads  and  other  works,  re- 
cording deeds  and  other  papers,  enforcing  law 
through  the  sheriff  and  prosecuting  attorney,  and 
caring  for  the  poor.  In  other  states,  the  county  is 
not  of  much  importance  but  the  township  is  the  prin- 
cipal agent  of  the  state  in  local  government.  In  still 
others,  both  the  county  and  township  are  important, 

In  counties,  the  laws  are  executed  through  tKei 
boards  of  supervisors  or  boards  of  county  commis- 
sioners and  a  number  of  officers,  chief  among  whom 


246  OUR  AMERICA 

are  the  sheriff,  recorder,  clerk,  treasurer  and 
auditor.  Much  of  the  county  work  is  merely  cler- 
ical, being  principally  the  matter  of  keeping  official 
records. 

The  Problem  of  Execution  of  Laws  is  One  of  Fix- 
ing Responsibility. — The  problem  in  carrying  out  the 
laws  in  nation,  state,  or  local  government  is  one  of 
fixing  responsibility  upon  some  person  to  see  that 
the  work  of  others  is  properly  performed. 

In  the  nation  we  find  that  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  officials,  responsibility  is  definitely  fixed. 
The  secretary  of  state  is  responsible  for  every  per- 
son in  the  foreign  service;  the  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury is  in  control  of  all  the  customs  officials  and 
revenue  collectors;  the  attorney-general  directs  the 
work  of  every  United  States  district  attorney;  the 
postmaster-general  controls  every  postmaster;  and 
the  other  cabinet  officials  control  their  departments 
similarly.  At  the  top  is  the  president  with  power  to 
control  the  whole.  The  system  is  known  as  a  cen- 
tralized form  of  government. 

In  the  states,  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  is,  as  we 
have  seen,  scattered  among  many  heads,  each  re- 
sponsible to  no  single  person.  The  principal  officers 
of  the  state  government  which  correspond  to  the 
cabinet  of  the  president  are  not  responsible  to  the 
government.  Again,  much  of  the  work  of  the  state 
is  performed  through  the  counties  and  townships,  yet 
in  only  a  limited  way  are  the  county  and  township 
officials  who  do  the  work  responsible  to  the  state  offi- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  247 

cials.  The  attorney-general  of  the  state  can  not  direct 
the  work  of  the  district  or  prosecuting  attorneys  as 
the  United  States  attorney-general  directs  the  work 
of  the  United  States  district  attorney.  The  state 
highway  departments  may  only  partially  direct  the 
work  of  local  road  officials.  In  nearly  every  state  the 
sheriff  who  is  the  principal  officer  of  the  county  in  en- 
forcing the  state's  laws  is  not  responsible  to  any  state 
official.  This  system  is  called  a  decentralized  form 
of  government. 

The  cities  show  examples  of  both  centralized  and 
decentralized  form.  Some  divide  the  work  among 
many  heads;  others  make  the  mayor  responsible; 
while  others  .put  all  power  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 
mission who  in  some  cases  make  a  business  man- 
ager the  responsible  head.  » 

The  Work  of  the  States  and  Nation  is  Distinct. — » 
The  persons  who  execute  the  work  of  the  United 
States  government  have  no  control  whatever  over 
any  of  the  persons  who  do  the  work  of  the  state  and 
local  governments.  Not  a  single  federal  official — not 
even  the  president — has  a  right  to  dictate  to  the 
most  unimportant  official  of  the  state,  county,  town- 
ship or  city. 

The  State  Controls  Cities,  Counties,  Townships,  etc. 
— Since,  however,  the  cities,  counties  and  townships 
are  agents  of  the  state,  in  executing  state  laws  one 
would  expect  that  the  executive  official  would  be 
subject  to  some  control  by  state  officials.  This  is 
not  the  case,  however,  except  in  a  few  instances.  The 


248  OUR  AMERICA 

legislatures  have  full  control  over  the  counties  and 
townships,  and  in  most  states  over  the  cities,  but  they 
have  not  seen  fit  to  give  very  much  control  to  the 
state  officials.  The  legislature  may  lay  down  duties 
for  local  officers,  but  they  give  no  one  power  to  com- 
pel them  to  perform  them.  There  are  a  few  cases 
where  the  governor  may  remove  local  officials, 
and  some  power  is  given  to  state  superintendents 
of  public  instruction  over  local  schools,  and  to 
state  highway  officials  over  local  road  officials  and 
to  state  health  boards  over  local  health  officials.  In 
some  states,  local  officials  are  compelled  to  make  cer- 
tain reports  to  state  officials  and  in  others  the  ac- 
counts of  local  officials  are  subject  to  examination  by 
state  officers.  These  checks  help  to  make  govern- 
ment honest,  but  they  do  not  necessarily  make  re- 
sponsible government. 

System  of  State  and  National  Aid. — The  system  of 
granting  aid  or  subsidies  has  been  invented  to  encour- 
age all  our  governments,  national,  state  and  local,  to 
work  together  in  harmony  for  common  causes.  In 
its  most  common  form,  that  of  state  aid  to  schools, 
it  is  provided  that  aid  shall  be  given  on  condition 
that  a  satisfactory  school  is  maintained.  It  is  merely 
a  partnership  between  the  state  and  local  govern- 
ment by  which  the  state  puts  in  part  of  the  money  to 
maintain  the  school  and  asks  in  return  that  the  local 
authorities  see  that  the  proper  kind  of  school  is  main- 
tained. When  the  local  authorities  fail  to  live  up  to 
the  agreement,  the  aid  is  withdrawn.  The  state 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  249 

also  enters  into  partnership  with  the  counties  and 
townships  in  building  roads.  The  agreement  pro- 
vides that  the  state  will  pay  part  of  the  cost  of  build- 
ing the  main  roads  if  they  are  built  in  accordance 
with  the  specifications  of  the  state. 

The  national  government  enters  into  a  partnership 
with  the  states  in  maintaining  the  state  militia, 
known  as  the  National  Guard.  The  nation  agrees  to 
pay  part  of  the  expense  and  the  state  agrees  to  keep 
the  Guard  up  to  a  certain  standard  of  efficiency. 
When  the  state  fails  in  its  agreement  the  national  aid 
is  withdrawn. 

These  are  examples  of  what  has  become  the  most 
effective  means  of  getting  government  work  per- 
formed. 

The  local  governments  are  encouraged  to  under- 
take and  to  do  work  of  common  benefit  to  them- 
selves and  the  state;  and  the  states  are  encouraged 
to  undertake  work  of  common  benefit  to  themselves 
and  the  nation.  Direct  control  is  avoided  but  the 
results  are  more  efficient. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Read  the  provision  of  the  United  States  Constitution 
relating  to  the  president  and  vice-president.  What  does 
the  United  States  Constitution  say  about  the  cabinet? 

Read  the  provision  of  your  state  constitution  relating  to 
the  executive  department.  Relating  to  cities.  Relating  to 
counties  and  townships. 

What  is  the  value  of  making  one  man  responsible  for 


250  OUR  AMERICA 

the  conduct  of  affairs  as  is  done  in  the  United  States 
government  ? 

Name  your  township  offices.  The  county  offices.  The 
city  offices.  The  state  offices. 

Do  state  officers  enforce  United  States  laws? 

Do  federal  officers  enforce  state  laws? 

Do  county  officers  enforce  state  laws? 

Do  township  officers  enforce  state  laws? 

Can  the  president  direct  the  work  of  county,  township 
or  city  officers  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  "short  ballot"  ?    Discuss  its  merits. 

Give  reasons  why  the  system  of  giving  state  or  national 
aid  is  effective  in  getting  work  done.  • 

Would  it  be  a  better  system  if  the  governor  were  given 
the  right  to  compel  any  state,  county,  city  or  township 
official  to  do  his  duty. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  cities  should  adopt  the  commission- 
manager  form  of  government. 

Resolved  that  commission  government  for  states  would 
be  preferable  to  the  present  form. 

Resolved  that  the  state  should  elect  a  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  and  leave  the  appointment  of  all 
important  officers  to  the  governor. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Finley  and  Sanderson,  American  Executive  and  Execu- 
tive Methods. 
Howe,  Modern  City  and  Some  of  Its  Problems. 

Chap.  IX  "Recent  Charter  Changes." 
Ryan,  Municipal  Freedom. 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Chap.  V  "The  President." 

Chap.  VI  "Presidential  Powers  and  Duties." 

Chap.  IX  "The  Cabinet." 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  251 

Chap.  XLI  "The  State  Executive." 
Chap.  XLI  "The  Working  of  State  Government." 
Chap.  XLVIII  "Local  Government." 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Commission  Plan  of  Government. 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Public  Officials — National,  State  and  Local 

(For  specific  information  affecting  their  offices). 

Short  Ballot  Organization. 

National  Municipal  League 
(Form  of  city  government). 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  SYSTEM  OF  COURTS 

Our  next  inquiry  has  to  do  with  the  provisions 
made  for  settling  disputes  which  arise  between  men 
over  their  rights;  deciding  whether  a  man  has  broken 
the  laws  and  should  be  punished;  and  whenever 
necessary,  defining  the  meaning  of  laws  so  that 
people  can  better  understand  their  application.  For 
these  purposes,  courts  are  created,  and  everybody  has 
the  right  to  appeal  to  the  court  whenever  he  feels 
that  he  has  been  wronged. 

Many  Kinds  of  Courts.— There  are  many  courts 
because  there  are  many  questions  to  be  settled.  The 
close  relations  in  which  people  work -bring  many  dis- 
putes over  property.  We  can  see  this  from  ordinary 
experience.  The  breaking  of  one  of  the  hundreds 
of  rules  which  have  been  established  to  protect  people 
from  dangers  to  life  and  property  brings  up  a  multi- 
tude of  cases  where  persons  have  broken  a  rule  and 
ought  to  be  punished  or  have  violated  a  right  and 
should  give  compensation.  The  very  size  of  the 
problem  and  the  difficulty  of  making  a  rule  or  law 
cover  all  possible  cases,  bring  a  great  amount  of 
work  to  the  courts  because  a  person  does  not  know 

252 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 


253 


254  OUR  AMERICA 

what  the  law  means  as  applied  to  his  particular  case 
and  the  courts  must  decide. 

To  meet  the  needs  for  courts  there  are  established 
city  courts,  state  courts  and  national  courts.  There 
is  usually  but  one  city  court,  though  it  may  have 
several  judges.  The  state  courts,  in  most  states,  con- 
sist of  the  justices  of  the  peace  courts  in  townships; 
the  magistrate's,  county,  circuit  or  district  court;  and 
the  higher  court  usually  called  the  Supreme  Court. 
In  many  states,  the  press  of  business  has  made  nec- 
essary other  courts  for  the  purpose  of  handling  certain 
kinds  of  business.  The  federal  court  consists  of  the 
.district  courts  usually  composed  of  one  or  more 
states;  the  circuit  court  of  appeals  of  which  there 
are  nine,  and  the  Supreme  Court.  These  courts 
handle  cases  over  the  same  territory.  They  overlap 
and  yet  each  has  its  particular  work  and  the  whole 
goes  on  smoothly. 

The  City  Court. — The  city  court  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  punishing  persons  who  break  the  laws  of  the 
city,  and  sometimes  those  who  commit  offenses  called 
misdemeanors  under  the  state  laws.  It  does  not 
handle  cases  of  disputes  over  property.  In  the  larger 
cities  hundreds  of  cases  are  decided  every  day  in  the 
city  court.  They  are  mostly  cases  of  people 
arrested  for  drunkenness,  petty  theft  and  disorderly 
conduct.  In  some  cities,  what  is  called  the  municipal 
court  takes  the  place  of  the  city  court.  Such  courts 
usually  have  several  judges.  The  work  is  divided  so 
that  each  judge  handles  certain  kinds  of  cases.  He 


p 
o 
O 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  255 

thus  becomes  familiar  with  the  way  of  handling  such 
cases  and  can  despatch  business  more  quickly.  In 
Chicago,  one  judge  handles  all  the  cases  of  persons 
arrested  for  driving  too  fast.  His  court  is  known  as 
the  speeders'  court. 

The  Justices  of  the  Peace. — The  lowest  state  court 
is  that  of  the  justice  of  the  peace.  Here  the  most 
petty  cases  can  get  a  hearing.  Sometimes  disputes 
involving  perhaps  not  more  than  one  dollar  are  heard 
and  settled.  For  the  country  district,  the  justice  of 
the  peace  courts  have  the  same  class  of  criminal 
cases  as  the  city  courts  in  cities.  In  cities,  they  get 
part  of  the  business  which  might  go  to  the  city  courts 
and  thus  overlap  the  city  court  to  a  certain  extent. 
Cases  of  any  great  importance  are  not  heard  before 
the  justices  of  the  peace.  Usually,  they  can  not  try 
cases  when  the  amount  involved  is  very  large.  The 
justice  of  the  peace  is  elected,  almost  everywhere,  by 
the  voters  of  the  township.  The  compensation,  is 
small  and  lawyers  seldom  take  the  office. 

The  County  or  Circuit  Court. — The  county,  cir- 
cuit or  district  court  is  the  next  higher  state  court. 
Here  the  more  important  cases  are  begun  and  tried. 
To  this  court,  also,  persons  may  appeal  from  the 
justice  court  and  the  city  court,  if  they  do  not  think 
they  have  had  a  fair  trial,  or  that  the  right  result 
has  not  been  reached.  When  the  business  becomes 
too  heavy  for  the  court,  as  in  counties  having 
large  cities,  it  is  often  divided— one  branch  handling 
all  cases  of  persons  accused  of  crime  and  the  other 


256  OUR  AMERICA 

/ 

handling  civil  cases.  Several  branches  may  be  re- 
quired to  do  all  the  business  and  the  court  may  have 
several  judges.  The  county  or  circuit  courts  are 
presided  over  by  judges  who  are  usually  elected  by 
the  people. 

The  Juvenile  Court. — The  juvenile  court  is  a  court 
created  to  handle  children's  cases.  Here,  the  chil- 
dren who  have  been  truants  from  school  or  who  have 
committed  petty  crimes  are  brought.  A  separate 
court  is  provided  because  it  is  dangerous  to  the  child 
to  make  him  associate  with  older  criminals  in  the  jus- 
tice of  the  peace,  city  or  county  court.  Child  crimes 
are  usually  not  vicious  crimes  and  if  the  bad  child  can 
be  talked  to  by  a  kindly  judge  and  not  made  to  feel 
too  keenly  his  wickedness,  he  will  be  benefited  by 
being  brought  before  the  court.  To  bring  a  child  into 
the  court  where  hardened  criminals  come,  often 
makes  him  also  a  hardened  criminal.  Parents  who 
neglect  their  children  are  brought  before  the  juvenile 
court.  The  court  is  designed  to  protect  children  in 
every  way  possible.  Through  this  court,  when  con- 
ducted by  a  good  judge,  many  children  have  been 
reformed  before  they  have  become  real  criminals. 

Courts  of  Appeal. — The  courts  we  have  been  dis- 
cussing thus  far  are  known  as  trial  courts  because 
cases  are  actually  tried  in  them.  The  evidence  is 
presented  to  the  judge  or  jury,  witnesses  are  heard 
the  lawyers  argue  the  case  and  the  decision  is  made. 

The  Supreme  Court  or  other  court  of  appeals  is 
not  a  place  where  trials  take  place.  Men  do  not 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  257 

appear  with  evidence  and  witnesses.  It  is  a  place 
where  persons  appeal  when  they  think  they  have  not 
had  a  fair  legal  trial  in  the  lower  courts.  The  Su- 
preme Court  goes  over  the  arguments  and  decides 
whether  such  appeal  is  justified.  If  the  judges  of  this 
court  decide  that  the  lower  court  did  not  do  justice  be- 
cause of  some  error,  they  may  reverse  the  decision 
of  the  court  and  order  a  new  trial,  or  they  may  change 
the  judgment  of  the  lower  court.  In  most  cases, 
the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  final  except 
in  cases  where  a  claim  is  set  up  that  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  has  a  right  to  pass  upon  the 
question.  The  state  Supreme  Courts  have  the  final 
word;  but  in  criminal  cases  the  governor,  in  nearly 
all  states,  may  grant  a  pardon,  or  reduce  the  penalty. 
The  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  usually  elected 
by  the  people,  but  in  a  few  states  are  appointed  by 
the  governor. 

United  States  Courts. — We  have  already  seen  that 
the  national  government  has  nothing  to  do  with  most 
of  the  ordinary  relations  of  men.  It  does  not  settle 
ordinary  disputes  over  property  and  does  not  regulate 
the  ordinary  affairs  of  people.  Its  laws  relate  to 
matters  which  are  wider  in  their  interests  .than  a 
single  state.  By  reviewing  the  subjects  upon  which 
we  have  found  that  the  federal  government  has 
authority,  we  also  learn  the  subjects  with  which  the 
federal  courts  deal.  Besides  these,  should  be  men- 
tioned the  fact  that  the  federal  courts  deal  with  mat- 
ters of  dispute  between  citizens  of  different  states, 


258  OUR  AMERICA 

also  between  two  states,  and  between  a  state  and  the 
citizens  of  another  state. 

The  United  States  District  Court.— The  lowest  fed- 
eral court  is  the  district  court.  There  are  at  present 
one  hundred  and  three  district  courts  each  comprising 
a  territory  consisting  of  a  part  of  a  state  or  a  whole 
state  or  several  states.  This  court  is  presided  over 
by  a  district  judge  appointed  by  the  president  for  life. 
In  this  court  suits  are  begun  and  tried. 

The  United  States  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals. — 
Whenever  any  person  is  not  satisfied  with  the  results 
in  the  district  court  he  may  appeal  to  the  circuit  court 
of  appeals  which  consists  of  three  judges  also  .ap- 
pointed by  the  president  for  life.  This  court  may 
require  a  new  trial  in  the  district  court  or  may  change 
the.  judgment  of  the  district  court. 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court. — The  United 
States  Supreme  Court  is  the  highest  court  in  the  land. 
It  consists  of  nine  judges  appointed  by  the  president 
for  life.  To  this  court  questions  may  be  appealed 
from  the  circuit  court  of  appeals  or  district  court. 
Appeals,  also,  come  to  this  court  from  the  state  Su- 
preme Courts  in  cases  where  it  is  claimed  that  the 
federal  Constitution  is  violated  or  that  it  is  a  matter 
subject  to  federal  law. 

Questions  of  the  greatest  importance  only  get  to 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  that  body  is 
constantly  deciding  such  questions.  This  court,  like 
the  higher  courts  in  the  state,  does  not  try  cases  but 
hears  the  arguments  based  upon  the  case  as  pre- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  259 

sented  in  the  lower  court.  Their  decision  may  grant 
a  new  trial  or  may  change  the  decision  of  the  lower 
courts.  When  the  Supreme  Court  has  decided,  there 
is  nothing  more  to  be  done ;  the  decision  must  be  ac* 
cepted.  The  president  may,  however,  pardon  or 
commute  the  sentence  of  any  person  who  has  been 
convicted  of  a  crime  under  the  federal  laws. 

Special  United  States  Courts. — There  are  in  the 
United  States  several  special  courts  which  deal  with 
only  one  special  class  of  cases.  The  most  important 
of  the  special  courts  are  the  Court  of  Claims,  and  the 
Court  of  Customs  Appeals.  These  courts  are  neces- 
sary because  of  the  great  number  of  cases  in  these 
fields  which  would  take  all  of  the  time  of  the  regular 
courts  if  the  business  went  to  them.  The  judges  in 
each  of  these  courts  are  appointed  by  the  president 
for  life. 

Court  of  Claims. — The  Court  of  Claims  hears  and 
decides  claims  against  the  United  States.  Such 
claims  are  numerous  because  of  the  vast  range  of 
the  United  States'  business.  Any  person  who  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  decision  of  this  court  may  appeal 
to  the  Supreme  Court. 

Court  of  Customs  Appeals. — The  Court  of  Cus- 
toms Appeals  deals  with  questions  arising  out  of  the 
importation  of  goods  into  the  country  and  the  pay- 
merit  of  duties.  For  purposes  of  levying  a  tariff, 
everything  is  classified  and  the  .  customs  house 
officials  determine  the  class  to  which  goods  belong. 
The  owner  of  the  goods  may  not  be  satisfied  with 


260  OUR  AMERICA 

the  decision  of  the  customs  house  officials  and  may 
appeal  to  the  Court  of  Customs  Appeals. 

In  all  of  these  special  courts  as  in  the  special  courts 
of  the  states,  counties  and  cities,  wherever  they  exist, 
the  judges  can  become  experts  in  the  particular  class 
of  cases  settled.  They  may  thus  do  the  work  of  their 
courts  more  speedily  and  accurately. 

The  Jury. — In  all  courts,  the  jury  is  the  body 
which  makes  the  decision  as  to  the  facts  of  any  case. 
A  person  charged  with  crime  is  entitled  to  have  his 
case  decided  by  a  jury.  Usually  in  all  important 
lawsuits  either  party  may  demand  a  jury. 

The  jury  consists  of  twelve  persons,  but  in  minor 
cases  a  jury  of  six  is  sometimes  used.  The  jurors 
are  chosen  by  lot  from  a  box  and  if  neither  side  ob- 
jects to  a  man  whose  name  is  drawn,  he  sits  as  a 
juror.  The  decision  must  be  unanimous  in  criminal 
cases,  and  usually  in  civil  cases.  In  a  few  states,  how- 
ever, a  three-fourths  or  two-thirds  vote  may  give  a 
verdict  in  civil  cases. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Review  the  provisions  in  the  United  States  Constitution 
relating  to  courts.  Review  the  state  constitution's  provi- 
sion relating  to  courts. 

Name  all  the  courts  in  your  community  from  the  justice 
of  the  peace  up.  Make  inquiry  of  lawyers  or  others  and 
write  an  accurate  statement  of  facts  about  the  existing 
courts. 

How  are  the  judges  selected  ? 

What  cases  are  begun  before  the  justice  of  the  peace? 

To  what  court  may  the  person  who  loses  in  the  justice 
of  the  peace  court  appeal  ? 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  261 

What  is  the  final  court  of  appeal  in  your  state?  (See 
your  state  constitution.) 

Where  would  the  following  cases  be  tried:  (a)  Suit 
for  damages  amounting  to  ten  dollars?  (b)  Suit  for 
payment  for  a  debt  amounting  to  five  hundred  dollars? 
(c)  Suit  against  a  person  charged  with  drunkenness?  (d) 
Suit  against  a  person  charged  with  burglary?  (e)  Suit  by 
a  citizen  of  New  York  against  a  citizen  of  Indiana  amount- 
ing to  one  thousand  dollars?  (f)  Suit  of  the  state  of 
Illinois  against  a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania? 

What  is  the  advantage  of  giving  the  right  of  appeal  to 
higher  courts? 

What  advantages  are  there  in  having  special  courts  such 
as  probate  court,  juvenile  court  and  criminal  court? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  no  appeal  to  a  higher  court  be  allowed 
when  the  amount  is  less  than  twenty-five  dollars. 

Resolved  that  judges  of  all  courts  should  be  appointed 
instead  of  elected. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Baldwin,  American  Judiciary. 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 
Chap.  XXII  "The  Federal  Courts." 
Chap.  XXIII  "The  Courts  and  the  Constitution." 
Chap.  XXIV  "The  Workings  of  the  Courts." 
Chap.  XLII  "The  State  Judiciary." 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Clerk  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  and  of  the 
District  and  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  in  your  district 
or  to  the  judges. 

Clerk  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  or  judges. 

Clerk  of  the  District,  County  or  Circuit  Court. 

Make  inquiries  of  local  lawyers. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
HOW  THE  COURTS  WORK 

People  are  more  interested  in  the  way  the  courts 
work  than  in  the  form  of  the  courts  themselves. 
Everybody  has  need  at  some  time  in  his  life  to  use 
the  courts  for  some  purpose.  Everybody  needs  to 
know  something  about  how  he  may  use  them  when 
the  occasion  arises.  Everybody  should  know  how 
the  courts,  as  well  as  other  departments,  work,  be- 
cause be  can  then  criticize  more  intelligently  when 
he  thinks  things  are  not  done  right.  Probably  if  we 
knew  the  conditions  under  which  officials  work,  we 
would  have  better  government  because  there  would 
be  intelligent  criticism. 

The  Purpose  of  Courts. — There  are  two  main  pur- 
poses of  courts: 

To  settle  disputes  between  persons  concerning 
personal  or  property  rights. 

To  determine  whether  a  person  has  committed  a 
crime  and  to  fix  his  punishment. 

The  first  is  called  civil  procedure  and  the  second 
is  called  criminal  procedure. 

Civil  Procedure. — Civil  procedure  includes  the  set- 
tlement of  disputes  which  arise  in  many  ways.  Some 
of  the  important  occasions  for  disputes  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

262 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  263 

Money  due  to  one  person  from  another.  The  man 
owing  the  money  may  have  refused  to  pay,  claiming 
he  did  not  owe  it,  or  that  it  was  not  a  just  debt,  or 
that  the  amount  was  not  correct. 

Contracts  or  agreements  made  between  two  or 
more  persons.  Any  party  making  an  agreement  or 
contract  may  be  forced  to  carry  it  out  or  pay  the 
damages  caused  by  the  failure  to  do  so. 

Title  to  property.  Determining  who  is  the  right- 
ful owner  of  property  in  dispute. 

Settling  a  person's  estate  upon  his  death.  This 
consists  in  paying  all  just  claims  and  distributing  the 
property  according  to  the  terms  of  a  will  if  one  is 
made  or  according  to  established  law  if  a  will  is  not 
made. 

Damages  caused  to  another.  This  may  arise  by 
doing  some  harmful  act  to  another  or  in  failing  to 
perform  some  duty,  which  results  in  damage. 

These  are  some  of  the  chief  causes,  but  there  are 
many  others. 

Beginning  Suit. — To  get  any  matter  into  court  the 
person  who  claims  any  damage  or  right  from  another 
makes  a  complaint  in  writing  to  the  court,  and  the 
court  issues  a  summons  to  the  party  complained 
against  to  appear  and  answer  the  complaint  by  a  cer- 
tain day.  This  process  begins  the  suit.  One  person 
is  said  to  sue  another.  The  one  who  sues  is  called  the 
plaintiff,  the  one  sued  is  the  defendant. 

In  small  matters,  the  suit  is  brought  before  the 
justice  of  the  peace.  Any  person  summoned  must 


264  OUR  AMERICA 

appear  or  else  he  will  forfeit  his  case.  A  'date  is 
fixed  for  the  trial.  In  most  cases  either  side  may 
ask  to  have  the  matter  decided  by  a  jury  instead  of 
by  the  justice.  Each  side  ma'y  compel  any  person 
who  knows  anything  about  the  case  to  appear  as  a 
witness.  This  is  done  by  the  justice  issuing  a  sub- 
poena ordering  the  witness  to  appear. 

The  Trial. — The  lawyer  for  the  plaintiff  opens  the 
case  stating  what  the  plaintiff  claims.  The  lawyer 
for  the  defendant  follows  with  the  statement  of  his 
client's  case.  The  witnesses  for  the  plaintiff  are 
called  and  testify  what  they  know  about  the  matter. 
#The  lawyers  of  both  sides  question  the  witnesses  to 
bring  out  all  the  facts.  The  witnesses  for  the  de- 
fendant are  called  and  examined.  Then  the  lawyers, 
for  ea?h  side,  sum  up  the  case  and  make  their  argu- 
ment. The  jury  then  decides,  according  to  the  weight 
of  the  evidence,  which  is  right,  and  fixes  the  amount 
of  damage  or  other  claim. 

Appeal  to  Higher  Ceurt. — If  either  side  is  not 
satisfied,  it  may  appeal  to  the  higher  court — the 
county  court  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  circuit 
or  district  court.  Here  the  trial  is  conducted  in  the 
same  way,  but  there  is  much  more  formality  about  it 
and,  of  course,  the  judge  being  an  able  lawyer,  is 
more  likely  to  avoid  errors  in  the  trial  than  a  justice 
of  the  peace  who  may  not  be  well  versed  in  the  law. 

If  the  case  is  an  important  one  amounting  to  more 
than  a  few  dollars,  it  is  not  tried  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace  at  all,  but  begins  in  the  county  or  circuit 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  265 

court.  The  procedure  to  begin  a  suit  in  that  court 
is  the  same  as  in  a  justice  of  the  peace  court,  that  is, 
a  complaint  is  made,  summons  issued,  witnesses  sub- 
poenaed, and  trial  held. 

In  either  case,  whether  the  suit  is  begun  in  the 
county  court  or  appealed  from  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  one  of  the  parties  may  not  be  satisfied  with 
the  decision.  He  may  think  that  he  has  not  had  a 
fair  trial  or  that  some  of  the  proceedings  were  not 
legal.  He  may  appeal  to  the  state  Supreme  Court  or 
to  some  other  higher  court,  if  such  exists,  which  is 
organized  to  hear  appeals.  This  court  does  not  try 
the  case.  It  merely  hears  the  argument  of  lawyers 
as  to  whether  a  fair  trial  has  been  had  according  to 
law  in  the  county  court.  If  this  court  finds  that  the 
trial  has  been  fair  and  was  conducted  according  to 
law,  it  affirms  the  case,  but  if  it  thinks  there  is 
doubt,  it  may  order  a  new  trial  by  the  lower  court, 
or  it  may  reverse  the  decision  without  any  further 
trial  and  change  it  as  it  thinks  right. 

The  Chance  is  Given  for  a  Fair  Trial.— It  will  be 
seen  that  plenty  of  chance  is  given  to  any  person  to 
get  a  fair  hearing  of  his  case.  After  his  case  has 
been  decided  by  a  jury,  he  is  given  the  chance  to 
have  it  reviewed  by  able  judges.  Most  cases  are  not 
appealed  because  it  is  plain  after  they  have  been  tried 
who  is  in  the  right.  Sometimes,  however,  cases  are 
appealed  by  men  or  corporations  who  have  plenty  of 
money,  hoping  that  they  can  thus  wear  out  their 
opponent  if  he  happens  to  be  poor.  It  costs  much 


266  OUR  AMERICA, 

money  to  carry  a  lawsuit  through  and  then  appeal  to 
the  higher  courts  or  fight  the  appeal  which  the  other 
side  takes.  Sometimes,  justice  is  defeated  in  that 
way  because  a  rich  man  may  appeal  a  case,  even 
when  he  is  clearly  in  the  wrong. 

Costs. — The  costs  are  paid  by  the  parties  but  are 
usually  charged  against  the  loser.  This  helps  to  pre- 
vent appeal  because  the  loser  with  a  bad  case  would 
only  make  his  loss  greater  by  piling  up  more  expense 
by  appealing.  The  poor  man,  however,  fighting  an 
appeal  would  have  large  personal  expense  and  high 
lawyers'  fees  and  he  is  often  driven  to  an  agreement 
by  which  he  settles  for  a  smaller  amount  for  fear  of 
the  expense  of  the  appeal. 

Not  all  Cases  Come  to  Trial. — Of  course,  not  all 
cases  come  to  trial.  It  often  happens  that  the  de- 
fendant knows  he  has  no  case  and  will  settle  before 
the  trial.  Often  the  plaintiff  brings  the  suit  to  force 
from  the  defendant  a  settlement  of  a  just  debt.  Some- 
times the  matters  in  dispute  are  settled  by  compro- 
mise— each  side  giving  up  certain  points — and  the 
lawsuit  is  avoided.  This  is,  of  course,  the  better  way. 

Enforcement  of  Decisions. — So  far  we  have  dis- 
cussed the  trial  and  decision.  When  the  judgment  is 
rendered  the  next  matter  is  to  enforce  it.  Suppose 
the  trial  results  in  a  decision  that  the  defendant 
owes  the  plaintiff  a  sum  of  money,  as  damages  or 
debt.  Then,  the  court  gives  the  plaintiff  a  judgment, 
and  if  the  defendant  has  property  of  his  own  he  can 
be  forced  to  pay  or  have  a  certain  amount  of  prop- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  267 

erty  taken  and  sold  to  pay  the  debt.  The  possible 
harshness  of  this  process  on  the  poor  has  resulted 
in  most  states  in  exemption  laws  which  permit  a  man 
to  have  a  certain  amount  which  can  not  be  taken  for 
debt.  Household  goods  are  usually  exempt  and  also 
workmen's  tools. 

If  the  dispute  has  been  over  the  possession  of 
property,  the  court  awards  the  property  to  the  suc- 
cessful person.  Then,  if  the  other  person  refuses  to 
give  it  up,  he  may  be  compelled  to  do  so  by  the 
court. 

Power  of  the  United  States  Courts. — It  may  happen 
that  a  person  living  in  one  state  has  cause  to  bring  a 
lawsuit  against  a  person  living  in  another  state. 
Where  can  he  begin  it?  It  is  plain  that  one  state  can 
not  control  the  citizens  of  another,  so  it  would  be  use- 
less to  issue  a  summons.  The  citizens  of  the  other 
state  would  not  obey  it  and  could  not  be  made  to  obey 
it  except  by  the  action  of  his  own  state.  Even  if  the 
person  should  be  willing  to  have  the  suit  tried,  the 
judgment  could  not  be  enforced  by  a  state  outside  of 
its  borders.  The  plaintiff  might  go  into  the  state 
where  the  defendant  lives,  but  in  many  cases  that 
would  put  him  at  a  disadvantage. 

A  greater  power  than  a  state's  is  needed  and  the 
United  States  courts  take  such  matters  under  their 
control  in  such  cases.  They  also  are  the  courts  to 
which  suits  begun  by  one  state  against  another  state 
or  against  a  citizen  of  another  state  are  brought. 
They  also  try  all  cases  arising  under  the  laws  of  the 


268  OUR  AMERICA 

United  States.  Some  of  these  cases  are:  Matters  of 
dispute  arising  in  territories  or  in  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia— these  being  under  the  sole  control  of  the 
United  States  law;  patents  and  copyrights  granted  to 
protect  an  inventor  or  writer,  i.  e.,  if  any  person 
makes  an  article  which  an  inventor  has  patented  or 
prints  and  sells  copies  of  books  which  have  been  copy- 
righted, the  inventor  or  author  may  sue  for  damages 
^in  the  United  States  court ;  matters  affecting  foreign 
commerce  and  commerce  between  the  states;  matters 
affecting  ambassadors  and  consuls  and  citizens  of 
foreign  countries;  bankruptcy  matters. 

Procedure  of  United  States  Courts. — The  method 
of  bringing  a  suit  is  the  same  as  in  the  state  courts. 
The  case  is  begun  in  the  district  court.  The  plaintiff 
makes  complaint  in  due  form  and  a  summons  is 
issued  by  the  district  judge.  The  parties  appear  and 
the  case  is  tried  either  with  or  without  a  jury.  The 
losing  party  may  appeal  to  the  circuit  court  of  ap- 
peals where  arguments  are  heard.  This  court  does 
not  try  the  case  again.  It  merely  decides  whether 
a  fair  legal  trial  has  been  had  in  the  district  court. 
It  may  reverse  the  decision,  uphold  it  or  order  a  new 
trial.  The  loser  may  still  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Court  which  is  the  last  resort.  Its  decision  is  final. 

The  judgment  of  the  United  States  courts  are  en- 
forced in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in  state  courts. 
Usually  the  cases  are  of  greater  importance  and  there 
are  few  failures  to  execute  the  judgments  of  these 
courts.  The  United  States  courts,  having  better  paid 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  269 

judges  appointed  for  life,  are  abler  courts  than  the 
state  courts.  The  business  is  conducted  with  more 
dignity  and  better  facilities  are  provided  for  conduct- 
ing a  case.  The  lawyers  who  practise  in  the  United 
States  courts  are  usually  the  ablest  lawyers.  It  is  a 
real  distinction  to  argue  a  case  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  The  judge  tries  a  large 
part  of  the  cases  without  a  jury.  An  able  judge 
may  thereby  get  through  a  case  more  quickly. 

Criminal  Procedure. — Any  person  who  breaks  a 
law  prohibiting  the  doing  of  an  act  is  subject  to  arrest 
and  punishment.  Society,  in  making  its  rules,  pro- 
vides for  their  enforcement  by  punishing  violators  by 
a  fine,  imprisonment  or  loss  of  privileges.  Violations 
of  law  are  called  crimes.  When  a  violation  takes 
place,  the  person  may  be  arrested  by  a  police  officer, 
if  the  officer  has  evidence  that  the  person  has  com- 
mitted the  crime.  A  citizen  may  also  arrest  a  person 
whom  he  knows  to  have  committed  a  felony.  Usually, 
the  arrests  made  by  the  police  are  for  crimes  which 
they  see  committed  or  of  which  they  have  certain 
evidence.  But  arrests  for  the  more  serious  crimes 
are  usually  made  upon  a  warrant  issued  by  a  court 
after  information  has  been  given  by  a  person  or 
prosecuting  officer  charging  a  crime,  or  after  a  grand 
jury  has  presented  an  indictment  charging  a  crime. 

Methods  of  Charging  a  Person  With  Crime. — The 
following  examples  will  show  how  the  machinery  of 
prosecution  is  usually  put  into  operation: 

A  policeman  observes  a  man  breaking  the  speed 


270  OUR  AMERICA 

laws  and  he  arrests  him  on  the  spot  without  a  war- 
rant. 

A  person  who  has  had  property  stolen  may  go  be- 
fore the  proper  court  and  charge  under  oath  that  a 
certain  person  is  guilty  of  the  crime.  The  court  may 
issue  a  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  the  person  named 
which  is  then  served  by  a  police  officer. 

The  prosecuting  officer,  having  knowledge  of  the 
commission  of  a  crime,  may  swear  out  a  warrant 
from  the  proper  court  and  cause  the  arrest  of  the 
person  by  a  police  officer. 

The  grand  jury  may,  after  an  investigation,  bring 
an  indictment  against  a  person  in  which  case  a  war- 
rant is  issued  as  in  other  cases  of  arrest.  This,  -being' 
the  usual  method  of  charging  serious  crimes,  will  be 
more  fully  described  here. 

The  Grand  Jury. — The  grand  jury  consists  of  a 
number  of  jurors  who  are  sworn  to  investigate  the 
evidence  of  crimes.  The  prosecuting  officer  directs 
their  work.  He  lays  before  them  all  evidence  which 
he  may  have.  Witnesses  are  called  and  questioned. 
The  work  is  done  in  secret.  The  grand  jury  hears 
only  one  side  of  the  case  merely  to  determine  whether 
there  is  enough  evidence  of  guilt  to  warrant  charg- 
ing any  person  with  the  crime.  If  the  jurors  think 
there  is  evidence  enough  they  bring  an  indictment 
which  charges  the  person  with  the  crime. 

The  grand  jury  system  has  been  attacked  because 
it  works  in  secret,  hearing  only  one  side,  and  often 
brings  an  unjust  charge.  While  a  charge  is  not  proof 


, 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  271 

of  guilt,  it  creates  suspicion,  and  a  good  man's  name  is 
often  sullied  by  an  indictment.  However,  if  the 
work  is  done  conscientiously,  there  is  little  danger 
because  good  men  will  hesitate  to  bring  a  charge 
unless  there  is  some  foundation. 

Minor  Offenses. — In  cases  of  minor  offenses  the 
persons  arrested  are  taken  before  the  court  at  once. 
In  the  cities,  these  cases  come  before  the  city  court; 
in  the  country  before  the  justices  of  the  peace  or 
similar  officers.  A  large  number  of  the  cases  are  dis- 
posed of  without  much  formality.  A  police  judge 
will  often  hear  and  dispose  of  hundreds  of  cases  in  a 
single  day.  Most  of  those  brought  before  the  court 
are  guilty,  but  there  may  be  some  satisfactory  expla- 
nation to  be  made  by  them.  The  judge  imposes 
fines  or  imprisonment.  Many  persons  are  let  off  on 
promises  to  do  better,  as  in  cases  of  persons  accused 
of  drunkenness,  or  of  disorderly  conduct,  or  of  youth 
accused  of  minor  crimes.  It  is  becoming  the  prac- 
tise in  progressive  courts  to  impose  a  sentence  and 
then  suspend  it.  The  person  is  then  let  out  on  good 
behavior.  If  he  does  not  keep  his  agreement,  the 
sentence  is  carried  out. 

Whenever  a  case  of  serious  crime  comes  before 
the  judge  or  justice  of  the  peace,  it  is  not  usually 
decided,  but  the  person  is  held  for  the  grand  jury  and 
the  evidence  is  presented  then.  Many  persons 
charged  with  crime  and  sentenced  by  the  police  judge 
appeal  to  the  higher  court  where  they  may  be  tried 
by  a  jury. 


272  OUR  AMERICA 

Rights  of  Persons  Accused  of  Crime. — In  the  olden 
times  persons  were  thrown  into  jail  on  mere  pre- 
texts and  harshly  treated.  Such  things  are  impos- 
sible to-day  in  any  enlightened  state.  When  a  person 
is  charged  with  a  crime  he  has  certain  rights  guaran- 
teed by  the  Constitution.  He  may  not  be  harshly 
treated.  He  is  entitled  to  the  services  of  a  lawyer 
and  if  he  can  not  afford  it,  the  state  furnishes  one. 
In  a  few  places,  notably  Los  Angeles,  California, 
there  is  an  official  known  as  the  public  defender 
whose  duty  it  is  to  defend  persons  charged  with 
crime  thereby  insuring  that  the  person  is  given  a  fair 
chance.  The  prisoner  is  entitled  to  be  freed  if  he 
can  furnish  bail  bonds  except  in  the  most  serious 
cases.  He  may  compel  persons  to  appear  at  his  trial 
and  testify.  He  is  entitled  to  a  speedy  trial  by  a 
jury  and,  in  all  states,  he  is  presumed  in  law  to  be 
innocent  until  he  is  proved  guilty.  Thus  every  pos- 
sible safeguard  is  thrown  around  the  accused  to  in- 
sure justice. 

The  Trial. — When  a  person  has  been  charged  with 
a  crime  in  any  of  the  ways  set  forth,  he  is  brought 
before  the  court  and  the  charge  is  read  to  him.  He 
may  plead  guilty  or  not  guilty.  If  the  plea  is  guilty, 
the  court  imposes  a  sentence,  but  if  a  plea  of  not 
guilty  is  entered,  the  date  of  trial  is  fixed  and  upon 
that  date  the  trial  proceeds,  unless  postponed  for 
cause. 

In  the  trial,  the  prosecuting  attorney  represents 
the  people.  He  opens  the  case,  setting  forth  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  273 

mam  facts  upon  which  the  charge  is  founded  and 
announces  what  he  expects  to  prove.  The  witnesses 
for  the  prosecution  are  called  and  examined  by  the 
prosecutor  and  cross-examined  by  the  attorney  for 
the  defense.  When  the  evidence  against  the  person 
is  all  in,  the  attorneys  for  the  defense  make  a  state- 
ment of  their  case  and  call  their  witnesses.  These 
witnesses  after  examination  by  the  defense  are  cross- 
examined  by  the  prosecutor.  When  all  the  evidence 
is  in,  the  attorneys  sum  up  the  evidence  and  make 
their  pleas  to  the  jury,  the  prosecutor  having  the 
last  plea.  The  judge  next  gives  his  instructions  to 
the  jury  pointing  out  the  rules  of  law  which  apply  to 
the  case.  The  jury  then  retires  and  considers  the 
case.  In  civil  cases  we  have  seen  that  the  jury  de- 
cides upon  the  weight  of  evidence.  In  criminal  cases, 
however,  it  is  not  the  weight  of  evidence  upon  which 
the  jury  decides  but  proof  is  required  beyond  all 
reasonable  doubt.  It  is  not  a  light  matter  to  convict  a 
person  of  a  crime  and  our  sense  of  justice  demands 
that  the  proof  of  guilt  be  clear.  This  results,  some- 
times, in  letting  guilty  persons  go  free,  but  it  is  bet- 
ter that  a  few  guilty  persons  should  go  free  than  that 
an  innocent  person  should  be  found  guilty  and 
punished. 

The  verdict  of  the  jury  must  be  unanimous.  If 
there  is  not  a  unanimous  vote  one  way  or  the  other 
after  a  reasonable  time  the  judge  dismisses  the  jury 
and  the  case  must  be  tried  again.  If  the  verdict  is 
"not  guilty,"  the  prisoner  is  re1*ased.  If  the  verdict 


274  OUR  AMERICA 

is  "guilty,"  the  judge  pronounces  sentence,  but  an 
appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  higher  courts  as  in  civil 
cases.  Any  person  who  has  been  pronounced  "not 
guilty"  may  not  be  tried  again  for  the  same  offense, 
even  though  additional  evidence  against  him  might 
be  discovered. 

Criminal  Procedure  in  United  States  Courts. — 
Criminal  procedure  in  the  United  States  courts, 
which  we  have  seen  has  only  a  limited  field  in  the 
matter  of  crimes,  is  similar  to  that  above  described. 
Cases  involving  the  violation  of  federal  laws  such 
as  the  postal  laws,  banking  laws,  interstate  commerce 
laws,  etc.,  come  before  the  federal  district  court. 
There  is  a  federal  grand  jury  which  is  similar  to  the 
state  grand  jury.  The  United  Stares  district  attorney 
is  the  prosecuting  official.  The  trial  is  held  in  prac- 
tically the  same  fashion.  An  appeal  may  be  taken  to 
the  circuit  court  of  appeals  and  from  there  to  the 
Supreme  Court  by  any  person  found  guilty.  In  some 
cases  a  suit  which  has  been  finally  decided  by  the 
state  courts  may  be  appealed  to  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  There  is  a  provision  in  the  United 
States  Constitution  that  no  state  shall  take  any  per- 
son's life,  liberty  or  property  without  due  process  of 
law.  Whenever  any  person  claims  that  he  has  not 
had  due  process  of  law,  he  may  appeal  his  case  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  which  may  reverse  any 
decision  of  the  state  courts  found  to  violate  the  pro- 
vision requiring  due  process  of  law.  There  are,  also, 
other  limitations  placed  on  the  states  by  the  United 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  275 

States  Constitution  and  when  they  are  violated,  an 
appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court. 

Declaring  Laws  Unconstitutional. — The  courts 
often  find  that  a  law  which  they  are  construing*  is 
in  conflict  with  the  constitution  of  the  state  or  of  the 
United  States.  In  such  cases  the  courts  declare  that 
the  law  has  no  force  because  it  is  in  conflict  with  the 
constitution  and  therefore  is  unconstitutional. 

This  power  to  declare  laws  unconstitutional  is  an 
important  one  because  the  court  may  defeat  any  act 
which  the  legislature  has  passed,  and  thus  have  a 
final  hand  in  the  making  of  laws.  The  decision  of 
the  highest  court  must  often  be  made  before  we 
really  know  what  the  law  is. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Make  a  list  of  as  many  different  actual  cases  involving 
property  rights  as  you  can  think  of. 

Get  copies  of  the  forms  used  by  the  courts  as  follows: 
Summons  to  answer  a  complaint.  Subpoena  of  witnesses. 
Warrant  of  arrest. 

What  would  happen  if  a  person  refused  to  obey  a  sum- 
mons; a  subpoena? 

In  a  trial,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  the  parties  and  the 
court  are  very  careful  not  to  allow  any  testimony  which 
does  not  have  a  bearing  on  the  case.  Why  is  this  im- 
portant ? 

Why  can  not  a  state  court  try  cases  where  parties  live 
in  different  states? 

Find  all  the  facts  possible  about  the  grand  jury  and 
its  work. 


276  OUR  AMERICA 

Make  a  report  upon  what  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  says  about  courts,  jury  trial  and  the  grand  jury. 
Make  a  report  upon  the  same  subject  in  your  state  consti- 
tution. 

Give  arguments  for  and  against  allowing  the  jury  to 
decide  in  criminal  cases  by  a  three-fourths  vote.  Would 
the  same  arguments  hold  in  the  case  of  juries  in  civil  cases  ? 

What  good  comes  from  providing  for  such  appeals? 

Organize  a  mock  trial.  Consult  with  local  attorneys  and 
conduct  the  trial  as  nearly  as  possible  like  a  real  trial. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  grand  jury  system  should  be  abolished. 

Resolved  that  there  should  be  a  public  defender  as  well 
as  a  public  prosecutor. 

Resolved  that  courts  of  arbitration  should  be  provided  by 
the  states  and  by  the  United  States  where  cases  should  be 
decided  without  costs. 


WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 
Same  as  preceding  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
PUNISHING  DISOBEDIENCE  TO  LAWS 

.When  laws  are  made,  they  become  rules  to  guide 
the  conduct  of  all  people  within  their  range.  Like 
all  rules,  they  must  be  enforced  to  be  of  value.  But 
to  enforce  them  means  that  something  must  be  done 
to  make  people  obey.  When  the  law  declares  that  a 
certain  thing  shall  not  be  done  and  people  disobey 
the  command,  there  must  be  some  punishment  in- 
flicted, or  else  there  would  be  continued  violations. 
The  ideal  of  all  laws  is  to  prevent  crimes,  and  one 
of  the  means  of  prevention  is  to  make  certain  that 
punishment  will  follow  the  violation  of  law. 

Enforcing  Laws. — There  are  several  methods  of 
punishment.  A  person  may  be  punished  by  fine,  by 
loss  of  privileges,  or  by  imprisonment. 

Fines. — Fines  merely  compel  the  payment  of 
money.  This  is  the  usual  penalty  for  the  smaller 
offenses,  but  it  is,  also,  the  method  in  some  important 
cases  especially  where  corporations  violate  the  law. 
Whenever  persons  are  fined  and  can  not  pay  the  fine, 
they  usually  have  to  serve  equivalent  time  in  jail. 
Fines  are  not  a  just  punishment  because  the  man 
who  has  money  can  easily  pay.  A  fine  does  not 
punish  him  but  it  severely  punishes  the  poor  man 

277 


278  OUR  AMERICA 

who  can  not  pay  or  from  whom  payment  would  mean 
hardship. 

Loss  of  Privileges. — The  principal  loss  of  privileges 
to  individuals  is  the  taking  away  of  the  right  to  vote 
or  hold  office.  This  punishment  usually  goes  with 
serious  crimes  in  addition  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 
Loss  of  office  is  also  inflicted  upon  officers  who  are 
impeached  and  found  guilty.  Corporations  are  often 
punished  by  having  their  right  to  do  business  taken 
away. 

Imprisonment. — Imprisonment  is  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  punishment.  It  is  also  a  much  more 
dreaded  punishment  than  fines  or  loss  of  privileges. 
The  fear  of  imprisonment  is  an  effective  way  of 
preventing  crime.  And  when  imprisonment  is  coupled 
with  methods  which  encourage  and  help  a  prisoner 
to  reform,  it  is  doubly  effective  and  helpful. 

Capital  Punishment. — Capital  punishment  used  to 
be  the  penalty  for  many  crimes.  In  England,  at  one 
time,  as  many  as  two  hundred  crimes  were  punish- 
able by  death.  Gradually  the  people  became  more 
humane,  and  now  only  two  crimes  are  punishable  by 
death  in  this  country:  namely,  murder  and  treason. 
In  some  states,  capital  punishment  is  entirely  abol- 
ished and  imprisonment  for  life  is  substituted.  The 
evident  trend  is  in  the  direction  of  abandoning  the 
death  penalty.  We  shall,  doubtless,  soon  look  back 
on  capital  punishment  as  a  relic  of  barbarism. 

Lockups. — The  smallest  form  of  a  prison  is  the 
local  lockup,  where  persons  who  are  charged  with 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  279 

crime  are  kept  temporarily  until  they  can  be  removed 
to  jails. 

Jails. — The  counties  and  most  large  cities  maintain 
jails  where  persons  who  are  charged  with  crime  are 
held  unless  they  are  let  out  on  bail,  and  where  petty 
offenders  are  confined  for  punishment.  The  evil  of 
keeping  men  confined  in  idleness  in  jails  has  led  to 
the  establishment  of  workhouses  and  penal  farms 
where  prisoners  who  are  sentenced  for  short  time 
are  sent  and  kept  at  work. 

Reformatories  and  Reform  Schools. — Not  long 
ago,  all  persons  sentenced  to  prison  were  treated 
alike.  The  old  hardened  criminal  and  the  young 
criminal  were  allowed  to  associate  together.  Little 
chance  was  given  for  those  who  wanted  to  reform 
and  do  better.  Recently,  we  have  begun  to  see  that 
it  is  best  to  give  prisoners  an  opportunity  and 
encouragement  to  reform  and  especially  young 
prisoners  who  may  not  be  very  bad,  but,  through  bad 
associations  or  by  mistakes,  may  have  violated  the 
law  and  got  into  prison.  The  most  progressive 
states  have  therefore  made  a  distinction  between  the 
young  prisoners  sentenced  for  lesser  crimes,  and  the 
older  criminals  sentenced  for  vicious  crimes.  The 
young  are  therefore  sent  to  reformatories  and  the  old 
to  prisons  or  penitentiaries.  The  young  boys  and 
girls  are  sent  to  reform  schools,  and  thus  they  are 
given  a  special  opportunity  to  do  better.  The  best 
division  is  that  all  boys  and  girls  up  to  seventeen  be 
sent  to  reform  schools,  all  men  and  women  from 


280  OUR  AMERICA 

seventeen  to  thirty  be  sent  to  the  reformatories, 
and  all  confirmed  criminals  and  those  over  thirty 
be  sent  to  the  prisons  or  penitentiary.  Special  insti- 
tutions are  provided  for  women  and  men  and  for 
boys  and  girls  in  the  best  systems. 

In  the  reform  schools  and  the  reformatories,  every 
influence  that  can  help  a  prisoner  to  be  a  good  citizen 
is  employed.  The  hope  is,  always,  that  if  a  man  gets 
started  right  again,  he  will  continue  to  be  a  good  man 
and  may  be  let  out  of  the  reformatory  at  the  end  of 
his  term  without  endangering  the  safety  of  others. 
One  of  the  best  means  employed  is  to  teach  the  pris- 
oners a  means  of  livelihood.  Trade  schools  are  a  fea- 
ture of  all  good  reformatories.  Here,  men  are  given  a 
chance  to  learn  a  trade  whereby  they  may  make  a 
living  when  they  get  out  of  prison.  Very  few  people 
who  get  into  reformatories  and  prisons  are  skilled  in 
any  trade.  Few  who  learn  a  trade  in  a  reformatory 
go  back  to  evil  ways.  Most  people  see  that  reforma- 
tion is  the  proper  end  of  punishment,  for  many  crimi- 
nals are  thus  helped  back  to  a  good  life. 

Prisons  and  Penitentiaries. — The  worst  criminals 
are  sent  to  prisons  or  penitentiaries.  But  they  are  no 
longer  treated  with  the  harshness  of  former  days. 
Solitary  confinement  and  dungeons  are  abandoned 
except  for  temporary  punishments.  Prisoners  no 
longer  live  continuously  in  cells  like  'caged  animals. 
In  almost  all  prisons  they  are  now  kept  at  work. 
They  are  under  strict  control  and  are  confined  sepa- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  281 

rately  in  cells  at  night.  They  are  given  many  oppor- 
tunities to  read  and  study.  They  often  form  bands 
and  orchestras,  organize  baseball  teams,  and  do  many 
other  things  which  tend  to  help  them.  Prisons  have 
become  wholesome  and  sanitary  and  the  care  of 
prisoners  has  become  humane. 

Penal  Farms. — Penal  farms  are  distinctly  reforma- 
tory in  character,  the  idea  being  that  a  real  cure  for 
a  prisoner  who  has  not  become  a  hardened  criminal 
is  more  likely  to  be  accomplished  by  getting  away  as 
far  as  possible  from  the  old-time  prison  routine  and 
keeping  the  prisoners  employed  in  outdoor  farm 
labor.  Such  labor  puts  a  person  in  fine  condition 
physically,  gives  him  a  vigorous  occupation,  trains 
him  in  modern  agricultural  methods,  and  gives  him 
an  occupation  which,  after  he  leaves  prison,  may  keep 
him  from  his  old  city  associates  and  bad  habits. 
While  many  state  prisons,  reformatories  and  reform 
schools  have  farms  as  a  part  of  the  prison  plant  and 
keep  a  small  part  of  the  prisoners  at  work  on  them, 
the  so-called  penal  farms  are  usually  separate  institu- 
tions for  prisoners  serving  short  terms,  or  are  substi- 
tutes in  large  cities  for  the  old  time  workhouse. 

Employment  of  Prisoners. — One  of  the  principles 
of  modern  prison  science  is  that  prisoners  should  be 
given  occupations.  Idleness  is  extremely  bad  for 
prisoners.  Prisoners  are,  therefore,  pressed  into 
service  to  render  actual  help  in  making  goods  for  the 
up-keep  of  the  institution,  and  to  raise  farm  produce 


282  OUR  AMERICA 

and  to  provide  various  kinds  of  supplies  and  furni- 
ture for  other  institutions. 

Defective  Prisoners. — A  new  idea  is  coming  into 
practise  in  the  treatment  of  prisoners.  It  is  recog- 
nized that  there  are  often  physical  or  mental  causes 
for  crime.  Persons  convicted  are,  therefore,  in  many 
places  being  carefully  examined  to  determine  their 
condition.  Often  it  is  found  that  a  prisoner  is  insane, 
epileptic,  feeble-minded  or  otherwise  defective  and 
should  be  sent  to  a  hospital  instead  of  a  prison.  Per- 
sons who  think  about  such  matters  are  hoping  that 
at  an  early  date  all  persons  accused  or  convicted  of 
crime  shall  be  examined  to  see  whether  they  are 
mentally  responsible. 

Indeterminate  Sentence  and  Parole. — It  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  the  custom  to  sentence  offenders 
for  an  indefinite  period,  usually  with  a  maximum  and 
minimum  period  indicated,  the  time  of  release  being 
dependent  on  good  conduct.  Criminals  are  removed 
from  society  because  they  are  dangerous  to  society, 
but  as  soon  as  they  have  shown  to  the  authorities  that 
they  are  no  longer  dangerous,  their  confinement 
should  end.  Parole  is  the  term  applied  to  such  re- 
lease. 

A  paroled  prisoner  is  allowed  (to  go  free  on  cer- 
tain conditions.  If  he  keeps  his  promise  as  to  his 
conduct  and  reports  regularly  to  the  officials,  he  is 
either  paroled  for._a  longer  period  or  released  abso- 
lutely. If  he  fails  to  keep  his  promises  in  any  way, 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  283 

he  is  sent  back  to  prison  without  a  new  trial  and 
resumes  his  original  sentence. 

Suspended  Sentence. — The  court  sometimes  sus- 
pends the  sentence,  that  is,  the  prisoner  is  let  go  on 
probation  and  as  soon  as  he  shows  he  is  not  trying  to 
reform,  the  court  proceeds  to  carry  out  the  sentence. 
If  his  reform  seems  permanent,  he  will  in  all  proba- 
bility never  serve  his  sentence. 

Probation.- — A  child  when  brought  before  the 
court  for  the  first  time  and  sometimes  for  later 
offenses  is  seldom  sentenced  to  an  institution,  even  if 
convicted  of  crime,  but  released  on  probation.  He 
must  report  at  certain  intervals  to  a  probation 
officer  who  is  either  a  permanent  court  officer  or 
some  person  appointed  by  the  court  to  be  a  friend 
of  the  child.  As  long  as  the  probation  officer  re- 
ceives satisfactory  rdports,  the  child  is  free.  An 
effort  is  made  to  help  him  by  means  of  his  school  or 
home  surroundings  or  through  his  employers.  Adult 
probation  is  quite  similar.  First  offenders  are  some- 
times not  sentenced  but  are  allowed  to  go  free  and 
required  to  report  regularly  to  the  court. 

Pardon — Reprieve  and  Commutation. — Prisoners 
may  escape  punishment  or  have  it  lessened  or  de- 
layed through  official  pardon,  commutation  of  sen- 
tence or  a  reprieve.  The  president  of  the  United 
States  has  the  power  to  pardon  federal  prisoners. 
In  the  states,  the  power  to  grant  pardons,  commu- 
tations and  reprieves,  is  a  function  of  the  governor. 


284  OUR  AMERICA 

The  governor's  pardon  is  often  subject,  however,  to 
the  advice  and  sometimes  the  approval  of  a  state 
pardon  board  or  council.  In  a  few  instances,  the 
pardon  is  granted  by  the  pardon  board  of  which  the 
governor  is  a  member. 

Aid  to  Prisoners  on  Leaving  Prisons. — A  prisoner, 
on  leaving  prison,  often  needs  financial  and  friendly 
assistance  in  getting  a  new  start  in  life.  Such  help 
is  often  given  by  private  associations  formed  for  the 
purpose;  but  it  is  recognized  in  some  states  as  a 
function  of  the  state  to  keep  in  touch  with  former 
prisoners  and  to  aid  them  by  advice,  letters  of  recom- 
mendation, and  loans  of  small  sums  when  such  assist- 
ance seems  advisable. 

Local,  State  and  Federal  Prisons. — Most  of  the 
prisons  are  state  and  local  institutions.  Each  state 
has  a  state  prison.  Many  states  have  a  reformatory 
for  young  men  and  a  separate  prison  and  a  reforma- 
tory for  women.  Boys'  and  girls'  reform  schools  are 
provided  in  most  of  the  states.  Very  few  states 
have  penal  farms. 

The  cities  maintain  jails  and  some  have  work- 
houses. The  counties  maintain  jails  and  the  towns 
and  townships  sometimes  have  local  lockups. 

The  federal  government  has  three  large  prisons 
where  those  who  violate  United  States  laws  are  sent. 
By  an  arrangement  with  states  and  local  authorities, 
the  local  jails  and  prisons  are  used  by  the  federal 
government  for  prisoners  sentenced  by  the  federal 
court  for  short  terms. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  285 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Why  should  punishment  for  crimes  be  certain? 

What  are  the  relative  merits  of  fines  and  imprisonment 
as  means  of  punishment? 

Are  all  crimes  similar  in  character  ?  Is  there  any  differ- 
ence in  the  character  of  the  crime  of  stealing  and  that  of 
exceeding  the  speed  limit  ? 

What  is  the  advantage  of  sentencing  a  prisoner  and  then 
suspending  the  sentence  during  good  behavior  ? 

Write  all  the  reasons  you  can  give  for  a  juvenile  court 
to  handle  all  children's  cases. 

Discuss  the  value  of  the  indeterminate  sentence.  Of  the 
system  of  parole. 

How  should  prisoners  be  kept  employed  ? 

Give  all  the  reasons  you  can  in  support  of  the  proposition 
that  the  penal  system  should  be  based  on  the  idea  of 
reformation  and  not  of  vindictive  justice. 

What  provisions  are  made  in  your  state  to  help  discharged 
prisoners  to  get  a  start  in  life? 

Outline  the  entire  prison  system  of  your  state  and  local 
community,  giving  the  names  and  localities  of  the  prisons, 
workhouses  and  jails. 

What  provisions,  if  any,  are  there  in  your  state  constitu- 
tion relating  to  punishment  for  crime? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  capital  punishment  should  be  abolished  in 
all  of  the  states  of  the  Union. 

Resolved  that  prisoners  should  be  employed  to  build  high- 
ways. 

Resolved  that  the  penal  farm  is  the  most  desirable  form 
of  prison. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Henderson,  Penal  and  Reformatory  Institutions. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  Capital  Punishment. 


286  OUR  AMERICA 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

American  Prison  Association. 

National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction. 

State  Board  of  Charities  or  similar  body. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
MILITARY  POWER 

When  our  forefathers  won  independence  and 
established  this  government,  they  kept  in  mind  the 
dangers  of  military  power  which  had  been  through- 
out history  the  principal  menace  to  people's  liberty. 
They  recognized  the  necessity  for  an  army  and  navy 
for  common  protection,  but  they  recognized,  also, 
that  the  army  should  be  subject  to  the  people  in  such 
a  way  as  to  prevent  the  overthrow  of  the  govern- 
ment by  successful  generals.  The  Declaration  of 
Independence  voiced  the  sentiment  of  the  people  on 
this  subject.  One  of  the  principal  causes  for  separa- 
tion from  England  was  declared  to  be  that  the  king 
had  "affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of 
and  superior  to  the  civil  power,"  and  that  he  had 
"kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies 
without  the  consent  of  our  legislature." 

Constitution  Limited  Power  of  Military. — So 
great  was  the  fear  of  standing  armies  that  the  con- 
stitution makers  in  1787,  when  fixing  the  powers  of 
Congress,  provided  that  Congress  should  have  power 
"to  raise  and  support  armies  but  no  appropriation  of 
money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than 
two  years." 

287 


288  OUR  AMERICA 

x 

Thus  the  need  to  raise  and  support  armies  was 
recognized,  but  fearing  lest  the  army  should  become 
too  powerful,  it  was  provided  that  its  supplies  would 
have  to  be  voted  every  two  years.  Any  attempt  of 
an  army  to  dominate,  as  in  some  other  countries, 
would  be  met  by  the  failure  of  the  money  chest.  The 
states  put  in  the  bill  of  rights  in  their  constitutions 
the  provision  which  generally  stated  that  the  military 
should  always  be  kept  strictly  subordinate  to  the 
civil  authorities. 

One  of  the  first  amendments  to  the  United  States 
Constitution,  passed  in  1791,  declared  that  no  soldiers 
should  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  person's 
house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner.  These  pro- 
visions all  tended  to  keep  the  military  from  any 
chance  to  dominate  the  citizens.  But  the  'people 
went  still  further  in  their  attempt  to  safeguard 
themselves  against  military  power.  They  gave 
authority  to  Congress  "to  provide  for  organizing, 
arming  and  disciplining  the  militia  and  for  governing 
such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  states  respec- 
tively, the  appointment- of  the  officers  and  the  author- 
ity of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress." 

Here,  then,  is  a  complete  check  to  prevent  a  stand- 
ing army  from  becoming  a  menace.  Thus,  no  money 
is  available  for  the  standing  army  unless  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  in  Congress  see  fit  to  vote  it 
every  two  years,  and  the  militia  of  the  states,  while 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  289 

tinder  the  regulation  of  the  United  States  and  sub- 
ject to  call  from  the  United  States,  is  commanded  by 
men  appointed  by  the  different  states,  the  officers 
being  subject  to  appointment  by  the  governor  or 
other  civil  authorities  in  the  different  states. 

Organization  of  the  Army. — The  army  is  organized 
at  present  in  two  parts — the  regular  army  of  the 
United  States  consisting  at  present  (1916)  of  about 
four  thousand  eight  hundred  officers  and  eighty- 
seven  thousand  men,  and  the  National  Guard  of  the 
different  states  consisting  of  nine  thousand  one  hun- 
dred officers  and  one  hundred  thirty-two  thousand 
men. 

The  regular  army  is  in  constant  service  under  com- 
mand of  the  United  States  army  officers.  All  ex- 
penses in  maintaining  it  are  paid  by  the  United 
States.  The  National  Guard  consists  of  the  citizen 
soldiers.  The  members  of  the  National  Guard  are 
subject  to  call  at  any  time  by  the  governor  of  the 
state  or  by  the  president  of  the  United  States.  They 
are  not,  however,  in  constant  service.  Usually,  they 
are  engaged  in  their  private  business,  but  when  the 
need  comes  to  meet  emergencies  they  must  respond 
to  the  call  of  the  governor  or  president. 

The  National  Guard  of  the  states  holds  annual  en- 
campments where  military  drill  is  carried  on  under 
direction  of  regular  officers  of  the  United  States 
army. 

Cooperation  of  States  and  Nation. — The  method 
of  cooperation  between  states  and  nation  in  main- 


290  OUR  AMERICA 

taining  the  National  Guard  is  used  with  the  most 
effective  results.  The  state  pays  part  of  the  cost 
and  if  they  maintain  a  satisfactory  standard  the  na- 
tional government  pays  the  rest.  Frequently,  it 
has  happened  that  the  sjtates  have  been  refused  aid 
because  they  did  not  keep  their  guard  up  to  a  good 
standard  of  efficiency.  It  is  a  strong  reason  for  the 
states  to  do  their  best  in  order  to  get  national  aid. 
By  fixing  standards,  the  national  government  is  able 
to  make  a  consistent  army  so  that  if  the  guard  from 
several  states  should  be  called  to  work  together  they 
would  be  able  to  do  so  harmoniously.  It  is  only  in 
extreme  cases  that  the  national  government  calls  out 
the  National  Guard  of  the  state.  The  regular  army 
is  available  and  is  usually  sufficient  for  any  work 
which  the  nation  has  to  do. 

Commander-in-Chief. — The  president  is  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  and  of  the 
National  Guard  when  called  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States.  The  governor  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  National  Guard  of  the  state.  In  both  cases, 
the  actual  command  is,  of  course,  given  to  military 
men,  although  the  final  authority  rests  with  the  presi- 
dent and  governor. 

Uses  of  Regular  Army. — The  uses  of  the  regular 
army  have  not  been  extensive  outside  of  the  unsettled 
regions  of  the  West.  Only  a  small  army  is  under 
arms  at  all  times.  As  this  is  written,  plans  are  under 
way  for  considerable  enlargement  and  a  contest  is 
on  between  those  who  would  prepare  to  meet  emerg- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  291 

encies  and  those  who  believe  that  our  geographical 
position  protects  us,  without  an  extensive  army — • 
from  any  foreign  foe. 

Uses  of  the  National  Guard. — The  uses  of  the 
National  Guard  are  not  extensive.  It  is  an  emerg- 
ency army.  It  is  called  by  the  governor  to  put  down 
serious  riots  and  to  preserve  order  in  calamities  such 
as  floods,  strikes  and  fires.  It  is  frequently  used  by 
the  governor  for  police  duties  in  preventing  prize 
fights  and  gambling  where  local  police  officers  fail  to 
act.  In  a  few  states  a  special  body  of  state  con- 
stables are  organized  to  attend  to  the  preservation 
of  order  in  any  part  of  the  state. 

Martial  Law. — Whenever  conditions  become  seri- 
ous and  can  not  be  handled  by  the  regular  authorities, 
whose  duty  is  to  enforce  the  law,  the  governor  for 
his  state  and  the  president  for  the  nation  may  de- 
clare that  martial  law,  which  is  the  rule  of  the  army, 
is  in  effect  over  a  given  area.  In  such  cases  the 
regular  civil  officers  become  subject  to  the  military 
and  the  ordinary  processes  of  government  are  sus- 
pended. This  extreme  power  is  not  often  resorted 
to  because  the  people  would  be  jealous  of  its  exer- 
cise. Presidents  and  governors  being  the  head  of 
the  civil  government  would  be  very  .careful  to  avoid 
the  use  of  this  form  of  arbitrary  government* 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Why  should  the  military  be  kept  subject  to  the  civil 
power  ? 


292  OUR  AMERICA 

What  are  the  dangers  from  military  power? 

Make  a  compilation  of  all  the  provisions  of  the  United 
States  Constitution  relating  to  the  army  and  navy. 

Make  a  summary  of  all  the  provisions  in  your  state  con- 
stitution relating  to  the  militia. 

What  does  the  Declaration  of  Independence  say  on  the 
subject  of  this  chapter? 

How  are  the  officers  of  the  National  Guard  of  your  state 
appointed  ? 

Are  they  appointed  for  political  reasons  or  because  they 
are  proficient  in  military  tactics  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  a  uniform  system  of  training 
the  state  militia  in  all  of  the  states  instead  of  leaving  each 
state  to  train  its  militia  as  it  chooses? 

What  are  the  possible  uses  to  which  the  army  of  the 
United  States  and  the  National  Guard  of  your  state  can 
be  put? 

What  would  be  the  advantage  of  having  military  train- 
ing in  the  high  schools? 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  the  army  of  the  United  States  should  be 
increased  to  not  less  than  two  hundred  thousand  men  and 
the  National  Guard  to  five  hundred  thousand  men. 

Resolved  that  there  should  be  compulsory  military  train- 
ing of  all  youth  for  at  least  two  years  from  the  time  they 
are  eighteen  to  twenty  years  of  age. 

Resolved  that  vocational  schools  should  be  provided  and 
that  all  members  of  the  army  should  be  compelled  to  learn 
a  vocation. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

United  States  Constitution. 

Constitution  of  your  state. 

Declaration  of  Independence. 

Report  of  the  United  States  War  Department. 

Report  of  the  State  Adjutant-General  or  similar  official.    . 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  293 

WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

United  States  War  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 
State  Adjutant-General's  Department,  State  CapitoL 
National  Security  League. 
American  Peace  Society. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
RELATIONS  WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

Thus  far  in  this  book,  we  have  been  dealing  with 
the  ways  and  means  of  looking  after  our  country's 
affairs.  Sometimes,  we  think  about  the  affairs  of 
our  country  so  much  that  we  forget  that  there  are 
other  countries  with  whom  we  have  any  dealings. 
The  people  of  all  countries  depend  so  much  upon  one 
another  that  a  better  understanding  is  needed  among 
them.  The  world  is  made  up  of  countries  or  nations. 
Each  nation  is  independent  of  the  others  and  runs 
its  own  affairs.  Any  interference  by  one  nation  with 
another  results  in  disputes  and  often  wars.  There 
are,  however,  so  many  ways  in  which  the  people  of 
one  nation  come  into  contact  with  those  of  another 
that  some  methods  of  working  together  have  to  be 
provided. 

Travel. — In  the  first  place  people  travel  in  other 
countries.  Some  travel  for  pleasure  and  others  for 
business.  Some  seek  education  and  some  adven- 
ture. Wherever  a  citizen  of  a  country  goes,  it  is  the 
duty  of  his  country  to  protect  him  against  unjust 
interference.  An  American  citizen  in  a  foreign  land 
is  entitled  to  the  protection  of  his  country  if  he  at- 
tends to  his  own  business  and  does  not  violate  the 

294 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  295 

laws  of  the  country  where  he  may  be.  Moreover  he 
is  entitled  to  the  protection  of  his  property  in  a  for- 
eign country.  He  may  not  be  unjustly  imprisoned 
and  his  property  can  not  be  taken  except  by  the 
honest  course  of  law.  We  have  often  come  to  the 
verge  of  war  with  other  nations  on  account  of  unfair 
treatment  of  our  citizens. 

Trade. — Secondly,  the  people  have  need  for  trade 
with  other  countries.  We  have  already  seen  that  we 
draw  our  living  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Goods 
are  shipped  and  payments  are  made  from  country  to 
country.  Ships  of  one  nation  reach  the  ports  of 
many  nations  in  the  world  of  commerce.  Money  is 
loaned  by  the  people  of  one  nation  to  those  of  an- 
other. The  dealings  of  people  of  different  countries 
with  one  another  are  many  and  important.  It  is  for 
the  advantage  of  all,  therefore,  that  the  nations  work 
well  together. 

Ambassadors  and  Ministers. — Naturally,  a  great 
many  questions  and  often  grave  disputes  arise  be-i 
tween  nations  growing  out  of  the  relations  of  their 
citizens.  Each  nation  must  be  in  a  position  to  know 
all  of  the  facts  in  order  to  form  its  conclusions  cor- 
rectly. It  is  everywhere  the  custom,  therefore,  for 
nations  to  have  representatives  residing  in  other  coun- 
tries to  represent  them  and  to  look  after  the  interests 
of  their  citizens.  These  representatives  are  called1 
ambassadors  or  ministers.  They  live  at  the  capitals 
of  the  countries  to  which  they  are  sent  and  represent 
their  own  countries  in  any  matters  which  arise.  One 


296  OUR  AMERICA 

of  their  principal  duties  is  to  cultivate  the  good  will 
of  the  people  and  the  rulers  of  the  country  to  which 
they  are  sent.  Many  times,  an  ambassador  has  been 
able  to  prevent  ill  feeling  between  nations  by  his 
personal  influence  with  the  government  officials  of 
the  country  to  which  he  was  sent. 

Consuls. — A  second  set  of  representatives  are 
called  consuls.  These  officials  are  maintained  in  for- 
eign countries  to  look  after  the  trade  interests  of  our 
people.  They  also  furnish  information  about  mar- 
kets to  American  producers.  In  these  two  ways,  our 
business  men  are  helped  in  finding  places  to  sell  their 
products  and  in  conducting  their  business  affairs  in 
foreign  countries.  By  means  of  the  Daily  Consular 
and  Trade  Reports  published  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce  at  Washington,  information  for  business 
men  about  foreign  markets  is  sent  to  all  men  who 
want  it.  Consuls  also  look  after  the  welfare  of 
American  travelers  who  may  need  any  assistance. 

Treaties  and  Arbitration. — Whenever  two  or  more 
countries  have  close  relations  and  many  problems 
arise  it  is  common  for  them  to  enter  into  agreements 
called  treaties  by  which  each  country  agrees  to  cer- 
tain things.  Often  these  agreements  are  to  arrange 
for  the  settlement  of  disputes,  each  country  agreeing 
to  submit  disputed  points  to  arbitration  by  impartial 
judges.  Of  course,  there  is  no  way  to  force  a  coun- 
try to  keep  an  agreement,  but  honorable  nations  will 
not  fail  to  keep  their  word.  It  has,  many  times,  been 
considered  a  cause  for  war  when  a  nation  breaks  its 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  297 

agreement.  Nations,  as  well  as  individuals,  ought 
to  carry  out  their  agreements  honestly. 

The  United  States  has  entered  into  many  treaties 
with  other  countries.  The  more  friendly  we  are  with 
a  country,  the  more  likely  we  are  to  enter  into  agree- 
ments for  mutual  advantage.  By  such  treaties,  we 
protect  the  interests  of  the  people  of  other  countries 
and  in  turn  have  the  interests  of  our  people  protect- 
ed. It  is  to  be  hoped  that  at  some  time  there  will  be 
an  agreement  among  all  nations  to  submit  all  dis- 
putes to  arbitration. 

The  Aim  of  This  Country. — The  aim  of  this  coun- 
try has  always  been  to  keep  out  of  any  union  with 
foreign  countries.  The  interests  of  the  great  nations 
of  Europe  are  their  own  and  we  have  nothing  to  do 
with  them  except  to  protect  the  interests  of  our  citi- 
zens. Washington,  in  his  farewell  address,  caution- 
ed our  people  to  avoid  all  connections  which  would 
lead  us  into  trouble  with  foreign  nations.  His  advice 
ought  to  be  read  to-day  and  heeded  by  all.  It  has 
been  followed  by  this  country  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury. We  have  succeeded  during  that  time  in  keep- 
ing out  of  European  troubles. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine. — The  policy  of  this  coun- 
try has  been  to  leave  the  Old  World  alone  and  to 
protect  the  New  World  of  America  from  interfer- 
ence from  abroad.  President  Monroe  stated  our  posi- 
tion in  1823  in  what  has  since  been  known  as  the 
Monroe  Doctrine.  President  Monroe  declared  that 
the  United  States  would  consider  an  attempt  on  the 


298  OUR  AMERICA 

part  of  any  European  nation  to  gain  territory  in 
America  as  an  act  unfriendly  to  the  United  States. 
No  nation  has  since  extended  its  territory  in  Amer- 
ica. Lately  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  been  partly 
changed  into  the  Pan  American  Doctrine  by  which 
the  countries  of  North  and  South  America  consider 
themselves  the  common  defenders  of  all  America. 

International  Law. — The  rules  which  govern  na- 
tions in  their  dealings  with  one  another  and  which 
they  are  morally  bound  to  obey  are  known  as  inter- 
national law.  International  law  consists  of  customs 
and  precedents  which  nations  follow.  It  is  unlike 
statute  law  since  there  is  no  legislature  to  enact  it, 
no  executive  to  enforce  it  and  no  court  to  construe 
and  apply  it.  It  is  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of 
acknowledged  experts,  in  treaties,  in  the  instructions 
of  governments  to  their  representatives  in  other 
countries  and  in  the  elaborate  code  drawn  up  by  the 
conference  of  nations  which  met  at  The  Hague  in 
1899  and  1907.  These  international  rules  are  of  three 
kinds  and  are  known  as  the  laws  of  war,  the  laws  of 
peace,  and  the  laws  of  neutrality.  Thus  the  relations 
between  two  nations  when  at  war  are  governed  by  the 
laws  of  war,  and  extend  to  such  matters  as  the  seiz- 
ure of  goods  intended  for  the  uses  of  war  and  the 
treatment  and  exchange  of  prisoners.  The  relations 
existing  between  a  neutral  nation  and  a  nation  at 
war  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  neutrality  and  re- 
late to  such  matters  as  the  seizure  of  goods,  the  fur- 
nishing of  war  supplies,  and  the  safety  of  persons 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  299 

not  engaged  in  the  war.  The  laws  of  peace  govern 
nations  in  their  ordinary  relations  with  one  another. 

Foreign  Affairs  a  National  Matter. — We  have  al- 
ready seen  that  the  duty  of  attending  to  matters 
relating  to  foreign  affairs  belongs  to  the  United 
States  and  not  to  the  states.  It  is  easy  to  see  why 
this  is  necessary.  What  would  happen  if  each  one  of 
the  forty-eight  states  could  make  agreements  with 
foreign  countries  is  plain  to  every  one.  We  would 
be  in  endless  trouble.  So  the  framers  of  the  Con- 
stitution wisely  left  all  such  matters  to  the  federal 
government.  The  president  is  given  the  power  to 
make  treaties  with  foreign  countries,  but  all  such 
treaties  must  be  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  United  States  Senate.  The  president  is  checked 
in  this  way  from  making  unwise  treaties. 

President  Appoints  Foreign  Representatives. — 
The  president  appoints  all  ambassadors  and  minis- 
ters to  foreign  countries,  but  the  Senate  must  ap- 
prove or  confirm  the  appointment.  This  serves  as 
another  check  on  the  president.  Consuls  and  their 
assistants  and  the  assistants  of  ambassadors  and  min- 
isters were  formerly  appointed  by  the  president,  but 
lately  a  system  of  appointment  through  a  civil  ser- 
vice examination  and  promotion  for  merit  has  been 
adopted.  This  has  given  encouragement  to  young 
men  to  prepare  for  this  service  as  a  life-work. 

Homes  for  Ambassadors. — The  higher  positions 
in  the  foreign  service,  while  commanding  good  sal- 
aries, have  usually  been  filled  by  wealthy  men  who 


300  OUR  AMERICA 

are  able  to  meet  the  heavy  expense  of  living  in  the 
necessary  style.  The  ambassador  or  minister  feels 
that  he  must  rent  expensive  quarters  in  which  to  live 
and  entertain  a  great  deal  so  as  to  keep  up  with  cus- 
tom. The  salaries  have  not  been  sufficient  to  pay 
such  expenses.  Lately  there  has  been  a  demand  that 
this  country  furnish  homes  for  the  ambassadors  or 
ministers  so  as  to  relieve  them  of  the  heavy  expense 
of  renting  quarters  and  at  the  same  time  give  the 
nation  a  better  standing  among  foreign  people.  Many 
of  the  foreign  countries  own  the  homes  of  their  am- 
bassadors at  Washington. 

Immigration. — Immigration  is  a  problem  which 
affects  the  relations  of  nations.  People  immigrate  in 
large  numbers  from  one  country  to  another.  When- 
ever there  are  advantages  to  be  gained  by  immigrat- 
ing, thousands  will  go.  As  one  country  fills  up  with 
population,  the  crowded  people  seek  space  in  new 
lands. 

America  has  always  been  a  land  of  opportunity  for 
the  crowded  countries  of  Europe.  Millions  of  people 
have  come  here  seeking  a  home  and  opportunity. 
We  have  kept  our  doors  open  for  foreign  people  and 
have  only  asked  that  they  show  that  they  are  men- 
tally sound,  not  criminal  and  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves. 

Naturalization. — We  naturally  expect  foreigners 
to  learn  the  ways  of  America  and  finally  to  become 
citizens.  We  do  not  take  them  as  citizens  at  once, 
but  after  their  arrival  they  may  declare  their  intentions 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  301 

to  become  citizens  and  after  five  years'  residence 
in  this  country,  may  become  citizens  with  all  the 
rights  which  they  would  have  had  if  they  had  been 
born  here. 

The  United  States  government  makes  and  en- 
forces the  laws  for  this  process  which  is  called  nat- 
uralization. Naturally,  as  soon  as  a  foreigner  be- 
comes a  citizen,  he  can  not  claim  any  rights  from  his 
old  home  country.  He  is  an  American  and  under 
our  protection.  Owing  to  the  problems  which  arise 
from  having  too  many  immigrants  who  would  not  be 
good  citizens,  laws  have  been  made  prohibiting  im- 
migration of  certain  races  and  it  has  been  proposed 
that  every  immigrant  should  be  able  to  read  and 
write  before  he  is  allowed  to  enter. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Why  is  it  best  to  have  foreign  affairs  handled  by  the 
national  government  and  not  by  the  states? 

Show  how  trade,  travel,  etc.,  are  likely  to  cause  difficul- 
ties to  arise  between  nations. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  "international  law"?  What  is 
the  advantage  of  having  such  law?  How  is  it  enforced? 

Why  are  ambassadors  and  ministers  to  foreign  countries 
necessary  ? 

What  is  the  value  of  having  consuls  in  foreign  lands? 

Give  all  of  the  reasons  which  you  can  for  arbitration  of 
disputes  between  nations.  Is  it  always  possible  to  arbitrate  ? 

Why  do  people  immigrate?  What  are  the  dangers  to 
this  country  in  unrestricted  immigration? 

Why  is  it  best  to  have  naturalization  of  foreigners  under 
control  of  the  national  government  instead  of  the  states? 
What  would  be  the  effect  of  permitting  each  state  to  have 
its  own  naturalization  laws? 


302  OUR  AMERICA 

May  a  person  who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  be- 
come a  citizen  of  another  country? 

Discuss  the  statement,  "Once  an  Englishman,  always  an 
Englishman." 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  immigration  should  be  restricted  by  an  edu- 
cational test. 

Resolved  that  homes  should  be  provided  in  all  foreign 
capitals  for  the  use  of  ambassadors  and  ministers. 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Haskins,  The  American  Government. 
Chap.  II.     "The  Department  of  State." 
Chap.  XXIX.     "The  Pan  American  Union." 

Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics. 
Chap.  XVI.     "The  Foreign  Affairs." 

Debaters'  Handbook,  Immigration. 

Debaters'  Handbook,  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

WHERE     TO     WRITE     FOR     FURTHER     INFOR- 
MATION 

State  University,  Department  of  Political  Science. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce  (Questions  relating  to 
consuls  and  foreign  trade). 

Pan  American  Union  (Questions  relating  to  South  and 
Central  America). 

U.  S.  Department  of  State  (Questions  relating  to  am- 
bassadors, ministers,  treaties,  etc.). 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
TERRITORIES 

When  the  federal  government  was  organized  in 
1789,  the  nation  was  composed  of  only  thirteen 
states,  and  the  territory  over  which  it  exercised  au- 
thority extended  no  farther  west  than  the  Mississippi 
River.  At  the  present  time,  the  federal  union  consists 
of  forty-eight  !*tates,  and  the  territory  over  which  it 
exercises  authority  extends  westward  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

When  the  territory,  located  outside  of  the  bound- 
aries of  the  original  thirteen  states,  was  first  acquired 
it  was  wild  and  unhabited  and  of  course  had  no 
organized  form  of  government.  It  was  usually  re- 
ferred to  as  the  public  domain.  The  lands  situated 
within  the  public  domain  were  very  fertile  and  at- 
tractive and  they  were  soon  populated  by  hardy  emi- 
grants from  the  eastern  seaboard  who  crossed  the 
mountains  in  search  of  new  homes. 

As  soon  as  these  frontier  settlements  were  found- 
ed, it  became  necessary  for  Congress  to  establish 
some  form  of  government  by  which  the  public  af- 
fairs of  the  settlers  might  be  regulated.  Congress 
considered  it  unwise  to  create  states  out  of  this  pub- 
lic domain  and  admit  them  to  the  Union  at  once.  So 

303 


304  OUR  AMERICA 

they  invented  a  temporary  form  of  government,  by 
which  the  inhabitants  were  governed  until  they  were 
sufficiently  numerous  to  constitute  a  separate  state. 
In  establishing  such  governments,  Congress  had  to 
provide  for  officers  who  had  power  to  make  and 
enforce  laws  and  it  was  also  necessary  to  fix  the 
boundaries  of  the  region  over  which  the  authority 
of  these  officers  extended. 

The  first  of  the  territories  was  organized  in  1787; 
the  last  territories  ceased  to  exist  within  the  bounds 
of  the  United  States  in  1912  when  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  were  admitted  to  the  Union.  The  territor- 
ial form  of  government  still  exists  only  in  the  de- 
pendencies and  foreign  possessions  of  the  United 
States. 

At  first,  the  territories  had  very  little  self-govern- 
ment. The  territorial  officers,  who  usually  consisted 
of  a  governor,  several  judges,  a  secretary,  a  territorial 
attorney,  a  marshal,  an  auditor,  a  treasurer  and  a 
librarian,  were  appointed  by  a  president,  and 
all  local  officers  were  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor. The  legislature  consisted  of  the  governor 
and  judges  who  made  the  laws,  but  it  was  necessary 
to  submit  these  laws  to  Congress  for  approval.  After 
the  laws  were  enacted,  the  governor  was  required  to 
enforce  them  and  the  judges  tried  all  persons  who 
violated  the  laws.  Of  course,  as  there  were  no  of- 
ficers elected,  the  people  had  no  right  to  vote.  After 
this  form  of  government  had  existed  for  a  while  and 
the  territory  had  become  more  thickly  settled,  Con- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  305 

gress  established  a  legislative  assembly  of  two 
houses.  The  lower  house  was  elected  by  the  people 
and  the  upper  house  was  chosen  by  the  president. 
Gradually,  Congress  extended  to  the  inhabitants  of 
a  territory  the  right  to  elect  the  members  of  the 
upper  house  and  some  of  the  more  important  local 
officers.  As  the  population  of  a  territory  increased, 
Congress  divided  it  into  smaller  territories  and  when 
one  of  these  smaller  territories  had  sufficient  pop- 
ulation, Congress  usually  admitted  the  territory  to 
the  Union. 

This  process  of  admitting  a  territory  to  the  Union 
has  not  always  been  the  same,  but  the  plan  generally 
followed  was  for  the  legislature  of  the  territory  to 
send  a  petition  to  Congress  asking  to  be  admitted 
to  the  Union  on  an  equality  with  the  other  states. 
On  receipt  of  this  petition,  Congress  passed  a  law 
which  is  known  as  an  enabling  act,  which  empowered 
the  people  of  the  territory  to  elect  delegates  to  a  con- 
vention to  frame  a  constitution.  When  the  constitu- 
tion had  been  adopted  by  the  territory,  it  was  sub- 
mitted to  Congress  and  if  Congress  approved  it,  the 
president  then  issued  a  proclamation  by  which  the 
territory  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Union.  The 
expenses  of  territorial  governments  were  paid  by 
Congress.  The  citizens  of  the  territories  took  no 
part  in  presidential  elections.  Each  territory  was 
permitted  to  send  a  delegate  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, who  had  the  right  to  debate  but  not  to 
vote. 


306  OUR  AMERICA 

At  the  present  time,  the  territories  of  the  United 
States  consist  of  Alaska,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the 
Philippines  and  Porto  Rico,  which  have  legislative 
assemblies  of  their  own;  and  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, the  Canal  Zone  and  a  considerable  number  of 
small  islands,  including  Guam  and  Tutuila,  which 
are  governed  by  federal  officers  and  have  no  voice 
in  their  own  government. 

Alaska. — The  territorial  government  of  Alaska  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  appointed  by  the  president, 
and  a  legislative  assembly  of  two  houses,  elected  by 
the  people.  The  governor  performs  about  the  same 
duties  as  the  governor  of  a  state,  but  he  is  also  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  so  has 
direct  charge  of  the  education  of  the  people  of  the 
territory.  The  upper  house  of  the  legislative  assem- 
bly consists  of  eight  members  and  the  lower  house  of 
sixteen  members.  All  laws  must  be  submitted  to 
Congress  for  approval  and  all  legislative  expenses 
are  paid  by  the  United  States  government.  Schools 
have  been  established  for  Indians  and  for  white  chil- 
dren, supported  partly  by  the  federal  government 
and  partly  by  funds  raised  by  local  taxation.  Since 
1906,  Alaska  has  been  permitted  to  send  a  delegate 
to  the  House  of  Representatives  at  Washington,  who 
may  speak  but  not  vote. 

Hawaii. — The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  been  a  fully 
organized  territory  since  1900.  The  principal  execu- 
tive officers  of  the  islands  are  the  governor  and  sec- 
retary. There  are  also  other  territorial  officers  who 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS 


307 


308  OUR  AMERICA 

have  charge  of  agriculture,  the  public  lands,  educa- 
tion and  the  forests.  The  territorial  legislature  con- 
sists of  a  Senate,  composed  of  fifteen  members,  and 
a  House  of  Representatives,  composed  of  thirty  mem- 
bers, all  of  whom  are  elected  by  the  people.  The 
judicial  department  consists  of  a  federal  court  of  two 
judges  and  various  territorial  courts.  Of  the  terri- 
torial officers,  the  president  appoints  the  governor, 
the  secretary  and  the  judges.  The  United  States 
government  controls  the  post-offices,  customs,  inter- 
nal revenue  and  the  lighthouses;  all  other  matters 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  territorial  govern- 
ment. The  right  to  vote  is  limited  to  resident  male 
citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  can  speak,  read 
and  write  the  English  or  Hawaiian  language.  The 
territory  has  a  delegate  in  Congress  who  may  debate 
and  introduce  bills  but  is  not  allowed  to  vote. 

Philippines. — The  government  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  is  vested  in  a  commission  of  nine  members, 
appointed  by  the  president  and  a  territorial  legisla- 
ture. The  commission  consists  of  a  governor-gen- 
eral and  four  executive  secretaries,  who  are  Ameri- 
cans, and  four  native  Filipinos.  Each  of  the  four 
executive  secretaries  is  at  the  head  of  a  department 
and  these  departments  have  charge  of  the  public 
health,  labor,  post-offices,  public  works,  maintenance 
of  order,  public  lands,  education  and  finance.  The 
legislature  consists  of  the  commission,  which  acts 
as  the  upper  house,  and  an  assembly  of  eighty-one 
members,  elected  by  the  people.  The  judicial  system 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  309 

consists  of  a  supreme  court,  twenty  local  courts,  a 
court  of  land  registration,  an  attorney-general  and 
justices  of  the  peace.  For  purposes  o£  local  govern- 
ment, the  islands  are  divided  into  thirty-one  regular 
provinces  and  seven  non-Christian  or  special  prov- 
inces. Order  is  maintained  in  the  islands  by  a 
well  disciplined  body  of  native  police,  commanded  by 
American  officers.  The  school  system  is  well  de- 
veloped and  consists  of  primary,  intermediate  and 
high  schools,  supervised  by  American  teachers.  Spe- 
cial attention  is  paid  to  primary  and  industrial  educa- 
tion. The  qualifications  for  voting  are  rather 
complicated,  but  in  general  each  voter  must  take  an 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States,  he  must  be 
a  property  owner  or  a  taxpayer,  and  must  be  able  to 
read,  write  and  speak  English  and  Spanish.  Two 
resident  commissioners  to  the  United  States  are 
elected  by  the  legislature  for  terms  of  four  years. 

Porto  Rico. — The  government  of  the  island  of 
Porto  Rico  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Philippines,  and 
is  vested  in  a  governor  and  an  executive  council, 
appointed  by  the  president  for  terms  of  four  years, 
and  a  legislature  of  two  houses.  The  executive 
council  consists  of  a  secretary,  an  attorney-general, 
a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  a  commissioner  of  the  in- 
terior and  a  commissioner  of  education  and  five 
other  members  who  must  be  native  Porto  Ricans. 
The  executive  council  constitutes  the  upper  house 
of  the  territorial  legislature  and  also  acts  as  a  com- 
mission with  power  to  grant  franchises,  prescribe 


310  OUR  AMERICA 

rates  of  service  charged  by  public  utilities,  adminis- 
ter election  laws  and  approve  the  sale  of  bonds  by 
cities.  The  lower  house  of  the  legislature  is  com- 
posed of  thirty-five  delegates  elected  by  the  people. 
Porto  Rico  has  a  delegate  in  Congress  elected  bien- 
nially by  the  qualified  voters. 

District  of  Columbia. — The  District  of  Columbia 
is  a  rectangular  piece  of  territory  set  apart  as  the 
seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  having 
an  area  of  sixty-four  square  miles,  and  containing  the 
city  of  Washington.  The  district  is  governed  by  three 
commissioners,  appointed  by  the  president  for  terms 
of  four  years,  two  of  whom  are  civilians  and  resi- 
dents of  the  District,  and  one  an  engineer  of  the 
regular  army  corps.  Other  officers,  belonging  to  the 
engineering  corps  of  the  regular  army,  have  charge 
of  the  parks  and  water  supply.  All  laws  governing 
the  District  are  passed  by  Congress,  but  the  com- 
missioners have  wide  discretion  in  the  adoption  of 
local  ordinances  and  regulations.  The  inhabitants 
have  no  right  to  vote  in  the  District  but  many  main- 
tain a  voting  place  in  the  states  of  which  they  are 
citizens.  The  District  has  no  delegate  in  Congress. 
One-half  of  the  expenses  of  the  District  are  paid  by 
the  federal  government  and  the  other  half  is  raised 
by  local  taxation. 

Canal  Zone. — The  Canal  Zone  consists  of  a  belt  of 
territory,  ten  miles  in  width,  extending  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  While  the  canal  was  being  con- 
structed, the  Zone  was  governed  by  the  Isthmian. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  311 

Canal  Commission.  After  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  the  Commission  was  dismissed  and  the  gov- 
ernment was  entrusted  to  a  governor  and  other  sub- 
ordinate officers  appointed  by  the  president.  The 
governor  has  general  charge  of  the  operation  of  the 
canal  and  the  establishment  of  tolls.  Justice  is  ad- 
ministered by  one  district  judge. 

Minor  Dependencies. — The  minor  dependencies 
of  the  United  States  consist  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  small  islands  situated  in  the  Carribean  Sea 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  Guam,  Tutuila  and  the  Samoan  Islands.  All  of 
these  islands  are  controlled  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment and  they  are  used  chiefly  as  naval  and  coaling 
stations  and  cable  depots.. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Prepare  a  list  of  the  various  territorial  acquisitions  by 
the  United  States,  giving  the  date  of  accession,  area,  the 
manner  of  acquiring  and  the  states  subsequently  created  out 
of  each  piece  of  territory. 

Was  your  state  originally  a  colony  or  a  territory? 

Describe  briefly  the  colonial  or  territorial  form  of  govern- 
ment in  existence  in  your  state  before  its  admission  to 
the  Union;  the  date  of  admission;  the  population  at  the 
time  of  admission;  the  manner  of  adopting  the  first  con- 
stitution ;  and  the  provisions  of  the  enabling  act. 

Is  it  logical  to  extend  full  political  rights  to  the  alien 
peoples  in  our  insular  possessions  when  these  rights  were 
denied  to  our  own  people  in  the  continental  territories  ? 

Were  there  any  political  reasons  for  the  admission  of 
your  state  to  the  Union  ? 


312  OUR  AMERICA 

Does  the  United  States  own  any  land  in  your  state  at 
the  present  time?  How  much?  For  what  purpose  is  it 
used?  How  much  land  has  been  ceded  by  the  United 
States  to  your  state  and  for  what  purposes  ? 

What  is  the  area  and  population  of  each  of  the  present 
territories  of  the  United  States? 

Justify  the  practise  of  allowing  territories  to  be  repre- 
sented in  nominating  conventions  when  they  are  not  per- 
mitted to  vote  for  president. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Resolved  that  the  Philippine  Islands  should  be  given  their 
independence. 

WHERE  TO  FIND  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Bryce,   The  American  Commonwealth. 

(Ed.  1911),  Chaps.  XLVII  and  XCVI. 
Haskin,  The  American  Government. 

Chaps.  XVII  and  XIX. 
Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics. 

Chap.  XXI. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
WHERE  THE  MONEY  COMES  FROM 

It  costs  more  than  three  billion  dollars  every  year 
to  do  the  thing's  which  the  people  have  to  do  for 
their  common  benefit  and  for  their  protection.  One 
billion  of  this  is  spent  by  the  federal  government, 
over  four  hundred  million  by  the  states,  and  the  rest 
by  the  counties,  townships,  cities,  towns  and  other 
districts  which  are  organized  to  do  part  of  the  peo- 
ple's business. 

Cost  of  Government. — Where  does  this  money 
come  from?  Each  government,  federal,  state  and 
local,  must,  of  course,  provide  the  money  for  the 
things  which  it  does.  The  fact  that  this  money  is 
spent  for  public  benefits  makes  it  clear  that  the  cost 
should  be  distributed  in  some  way  so  that  each  will 
pay  his  fair  share. 

Old  and  New  Methods  of  Taxation. — The  govern- 
ments of  earlier  times  seldom  considered  the  justice 
of  the  amount  which  each  should  pay.  They  took 
all  they  could  get  from  each.  Some  paid  heavily  be- 
cause it  was  easy  to  force  it  from  them,  while  others 
whose  property  was  concealed,  escaped  in  part  or 
whole.  In  those  days,  government  was  not  accepted 
as  a  common  benefit.  Men  were  subject  to  kings 

313 


314  OUR  AMERICA 

and  nobles  and  what  they  paid  was  to  satisfy  the 
desires  or  greed  of  their  rulers.  The  money  may 
have  been  partly  spent  for  common  benefits  or  it 
may  have  been  wasted  by  the  rulers  or  spent  in  petty 
wars. 

Although  the  whole  plan  of  government  has  been 
changed  to  the  democratic  ideal  of  a  government, 
doing  what  it  does  for  common  benefits  and  collect- 
ing money  to  be  spent  for  the  benefit  of  all,  still  we 
do  not  always  carefully  consider  whether  the  amount 
we  take  from  each  in  taxes  is  the  just  portion  which 
he  should  pay.  We  are  striving  to  reach  that  point 
where  each  person  shall  bear  his  just  share  of  the 
burdens  which  the  benefits  of  government  bring. 

Sources  of  Government  Revenue. — Governments 
derive  the  money  which  they  spend  from  the  follow- 
ing main  sources: 

General  taxation  upon  property.  A  uniform  rate 
levied  upon  the  assessed  value  of  all  property. 

Tariff  duties  levied  upon  any  goods  brought  into 
the  country. 

Excises  or  internal  revenues — taxes  upon  liquor, 
tobacco,  etc. 

License  taxes  levied  agaifist  certain  industries 
such  as  the  liquor  business. 

License  fees  upon  the  conduct  of  any  regular  busi- 
ness, such  as  a  license  to  engage  in  the  real  estate 
business  called  business  taxes. 

Taxes  upon  incomes  at  a  percentage  of  the  amount 
of  the  income. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  315 

Fees  for  services  performed  by  the  government, 
such  as  recording  papers. 

Compensation  for  work  done  for  the  people,  such 
as  the  furnishing  of  postal  service,  water  service, 
etc. 

-  Inheritance    taxes — a    percentage    charged    upon 
property  transferred  to  heirs  at  death. 

Special  taxes  upon  transactions,  such  as  the  tax 
upon  notes,  mortgages,  deeds,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone messages. 

Special  assessments  against  property  benefited  by 
an  improvement,  such  as  the  paving  of  a  street  or 
the  laying  out  of  a  park  or  boulevard. 

Poll  taxes. 

Sale  of  bonds  and  other  obligations. 

Revenue  of  the  Federal  Government. — The  fed- 
eral government  does  not  levy  any  direct  taxes  upon 
property.  From  the  beginning,  the  federal  govern- 
ment derived  its  revenue  principally  from  tariff  du- 
ties, excise  taxes  on  the  manufacture  of  whisky, 
beer  and  other  liquors,  tobacco,  cigars  and  cigar- 
ettes. The  postal  service  is  now  more  than  sup- 
porting itself  from  the  amounts  paid  for  services  ren- 
dered. In  late  years,  the  federal  government  has 
added  a  tax  upon  incomes  and  upon  the  earnings  of 
corporations.  To  meet  emergencies,  taxes  have 
often  been  levied  at  different  times  upon  notes,  mort- 
gages, deeds,  telephone  and  telegraph  messages,  etc. 

The  Tariff. — The  tariff  duties  upon  goods  import- 
ed from  another  country  vary.  In  some  cases,  the 


316  OUR  AMERICA 

rate  is  so  much  per  article  or  per  dozen;  in  others 
it  is  a  percentage  of  the  value.  When  such  a  tax  is 
levied,  there  are  two  opposing  views — the  protective 
tariff  view  and  the  tariff  for  revenue  view.  The 
former  would  put  rates  high  and  thus  tend  to  keep 
goods  out,  thereby  encouraging  production  at  home, 
and  the  latter  would  make  rates  low  and  thus  en- 
courage imports.  Whatever  the  tax  may  be,  it 
amounts  to  that  much  added  to  the  cost  of  the  arti- 
cle. The  person  who  uses  the  article  thus  pays  the 
tax.  It  would  seem  in  a  just  system,  therefore,  that 
upon  the  common  articles  which  everybody  uses  for 
living,  the  rates  should  be  extremely  low  if  not  en- 
tirely eliminated  and  that  those  things  which  are 
counted  luxuries  should  bear  a  heavier  burden.  To 
illustrate,  if  necessary  articles  of  food  are  taxed,  the 
poor  man  pays  a  tax  equal  to  the  rich  man  although 
he  can  not  afford  to  pay  so  much. 

Internal  Revenue. — The  tax  upon  liquors  and  to- 
bacco is  in  the  nature  of  a  tax  upon  luxuries.  It  is 
levied  upon  the  manufacture  of  liquors  and  tobacco. 
Every  case  of  liquor  and  package  of  tobacco  or  cigars 
must  bear  the  stamp  which  is  purchased  from  the 
government.  The  tax  is  called  the  internal  revenue 
tax. 

Income  Tax. — The  income  tax  is  a  new  source  of 
revenue  for  the'  federal  government.  It  was  first 
adopted  as  to  corporations  in  1909  and  as  to  indi- 
viduals in  1913.  Every  corporation  must  file  a 
schedule  of  its  gross  earnings  and  pay  to  the  col- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  317 

lector  of  internal  revenue  two  per  cent,  of  its  earn- 
ings. Every  single  person  who  has  an  income  of 
more  than  three  thousand  dollars  or  married  person 
who  has  an  income  of  four  thousand  dollars  must  pay 
a  per  cent,  of  the  amount  to  the  collector  of  internal 
revenue.  There  are  certain  exemptions.  Salary  from 
state  and  local  governments  and  pensions  are  ex- 
empt. 

Postal  Service. — The  amount  charged  for  postal 
service  is  not  strictly  a  tax,  but  may  be  classed  as 
such,  for  if  the  nation  supplied  this  necessary  service 
free,  it  would  have  to  collect  a  tax  to  pay  the  cost. 
Instead,  a  charge  is  made  just  sufficient  to  pay  the 
cost  of  the  service. 

Amount  Collected  by  the  United  States. — From 
these  sources  of  revenue,  the  federal  government  de- 
rived the  following  income  in  the  year  1915: 

From  tariff  duties $209,786,672.00 

From  personal  income  tax 41,046,162.00 

From  corporation  income  tax 39,144,531.00 

From   liquor   and   tobacco    and   other 

internal  taxes 335,479,265.00 

From  all  other  sources 72,454,508.00 

From  post-office  __. 287,248,165.00 

Indirect  System. — The  system  of  taxation  used  by 
the  federal  government,  thus  described,  is  an  indi- 
rect system.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  income  tax, 


318  OUR  AMERICA 

there  is  no  direct  payment.  The  amount  is  merely 
added  to  the  cost  of  the  things  consumed  and  the 
real  taxpayer  never  realizes  the  exact  amount  of  his 
contribution  to  the  nation's  work. 

State  Revenues — General  Property  Tax. — The 
states  get  the  larger  part  of  their  income  from  a 
direct  tax  upon  property.  All  property  is  given  an 
assessed  value  by  the  assessors  and  that  value  multi- 
plied by  the  rate  gives  the  amount.  When  the 
amount  of  money  to  be  raised  is  fixed,  that  amount 
is  divided  by  the  total  amount  of  property  assessed 
to  get  the  rate  per  thousand.  It  is  a  simple  case  of 
so  much  property,  so  much  tax.  It  is  based  upon 
the  proposition  that  the  ownership  of  property  is  the 
test  of  ability  to  pay.  Now,  if  all  property  were  as- 
sessed at  the  same  proportion  of  its  value  and  if  no 
property  were  concealed,  this  would  be  a  fairly  just 
method  of  taxation.  But  property  is  seldom  assess- 
ed at  a  uniform  value.  Assessors  do  not  know  values; 
some  of  the  assessors  show  favoritism;  personal 
property,  such  as  stocks,  bonds,  notes  and  mort- 
gages, are  concealed;  property  is  moved  out  of  the 
state  at  assessment  time;  and  as  a  result  the  principal 
tax  falls  upon  the  property  which  is  in  sight  and 
can  not  escape.  Real  estate,  therefore,  bears  an  un- 
just portion  of  the  tax.  Many  states  are  working  to 
solve  this  problem  of  fair  taxation,  but  they  have  not 
been  able  to  find  a  solution. 

Business  Tax. — Another  source  of  revenue  which 
the  states  use  is  the  tax  upon  business.  Some  of  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  319 

southern  and  western  states  receive  from  this  source 
a  large  revenue,  which  consists  of  a  license  tax  for 
the  privilege  of  doing  certain  kinds  of  business.  The 
state  also  derives  large  revenues  from  the  liquor 
traffic  in  the  form  of  licenses  to  permit  the  conduct 
of  the  business.  A  few  of  the  states  have  tried  the 
income  tax. 

Inheritance  Tax. — Practically  all  of  the  states  levy 
a  tax  upon  the  right  to  receive  property  by  will  or 
bequest.  The  tax  is  direct.  The  rate  is  fixed  and 
the  amount  is  multiplied  by  the  rate.  The  rate  us- 
ually varies,  being  higher  if  the  property  goes  to 
distant  heirs  and  also  varies  with  the  amount  of 
property,  large  amounts  being  taxed  at  a  higher  rate. 
In  some  states,  the  rate  when  the  property  descends 
to  a  wife,  husband  or  child  is  low  but  rises  to  as  high 
as  fifteen  per  cent,  when  the  estate  is  larger  and  goes 
to  far  distant  relatives. 

Poll  Tax. — A  poll  tax  is  levied  in  many  states  for 
the  benefit  of  the  state  or  local  governments.  It 
consists  of  a  direct  tax  upon  each  man  between  the 
ages  of  twenty-one  and  fifty  or  sixty.  The  poll  tax 
usually  ranges  from  one  dollar  to  three  dollars.  In 
several  states  a  man  must  show  his  poll-tax  receipt 
before  he  can  vote.  Usually  the  poll  tax  is  not 
easily  collected  and  the  revenue  from  it  is  not  large. 

Revenues  of  Counties  and  Townships. — The  coun- 
ties and  townships  derive  their  revenue  mostly  from 
the  general  property  tax.  The  rate  for  their  purpose 
is  determined  and  is  levied  upon  the  same  property 


320  OUR  AMERICA 

as  that  assessed  for  the  state  tax.  A  few  minor 
sources,  such  as  dog  taxes,  furnish  slight  revenues. 

Revenues  of  Cities  and  Towns. — Cities  and  towns 
derive  their  revenues  from  many  sources.  The  chief 
source  is,  however,  the  general  property  tax,  the 
amount  for  city  purposes  being  levied  against  the 
same  property  as  that  assessed  for  state  purposes. 
A  second  source  of  revenue  is  from  licenses  of  sa- 
loons and  from  business  taxes.  Trades  and  busi- 
ness are  required  to  be  licensed  in  many  cities.  A 
vehicle  tax  is  quite  generally  imposed  upon  all 
wheeled  vehicles  run  upon  the  streets. 

Many  cities  derive  considerable  revenue  from  ser- 
vices performed  for  the  people.  Most  of  our  cities 
own  their  own  waterworks  and  the  profits  arising 
from  their  operation  go  into  the  city  treasury.  Many 
cities  own  electric  light  plants  and  profits  go  into 
the  revenues  of  the  cities;  many  cities  own  gas  plants 
also,  and  a  few  own  street  railways  which  furnish  a 
profit. 

Special  Assessments  for  Streets,  Sewers,  etc. — 
Some  of  the  most  important  work  of  the  city  is  paid 
for  by  special  assessments,  that  is,  by  assessments 
upon  the  property  benefited.  Pavements,  sewers  and 
sidewalks  are  of  this  class.  A  portion  or  all  of  the 
cost  of  parks  and  boulevards  is  often  levied  against 
benefited  property.  The  assessments  for  pavements, 
sewers  and  sidewalks  are  based  upon  the  frontage  of 
the  lot.  Each  foot  is  taxed  its  proportion  of  the  cost 
of  pavement  and  sidewalks,  without  regard  to  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  321 

value  of  the  property.  It  is  usually  left  to  the  will 
of  the  property  owners  on  a  street  whether  the  pave- 
ments or  sidewalks  shall  be  put  in,  but  the  cities 
often  order  the  work  in  spite  of  the  owners  when 
the  .general  public  convenience  is  promoted. 

The  methods  of  assessment  for  improvements  vary 
in  the  cities.  Some  pay  the  cost  of  street  intersec- 
tions out  of  the  city  treasury  while  others  apportion 
it  against  the  property  owners  running  back  a  cer- 
tain distance  on  both  streets.  Some  cities  levy  the 
cost  on  all  o£  the  land  for  a  considerable  distance 
back,  but  put  the  larger  burden  upon  the  land  which 
fronts  the  street.  Many  cities  pay  the  entire  cost  of 
paving  out  of  the  city  treasury. 

Formerly,  such  special  taxes  were  levied  and  col- 
lected all  at  once.  It  was  a  severe  hardship  upon 
many  to  pay  the  heavy  cost  of  street  paving  all  at 
once,  and  provision  is  made  quite  generally  now  for 
the  distribution  of  the  cost  over  five  or  ten  years, 
the  tax  being  paid  in  regular  annual  installments 
with  interest. 

There  has  always  been  much  argument  over  the 
question  whether  a  property  owner  should  be  com- 
pelled to  pay  entirely  for  paving  the  street  in  front 
of  his  property  for  the  use  of  the  whole  city.  In 
general,  however,  it  is  accepted  that  such  improve- 
ments increase  the  value  of  such  property  in  amount 
equal  to,  or  greater  than,  the  amount  of  the  tax.  The 
theory  of  benefits  to  property,  there-fore,  justifies 
the  tax. 


322  OUR  AMERICA 

Drainage,  irrigation  and  other  districts  derive  their 
revenues  almost  entirely  from  assessments  for  bene- 
fits derived.  In  some  places  highways  are  paid  for 
by  special  assessments. 

School  Revenue. — School  districts,  when  they  are 
separate  from  the  township,  town,  or  city,  get  their 
revenues  from  direct  taxes  levied  upon  the  property 
assessed  for  other  purposes,  and  from  aid  given  by 
the  state.  Nearly  every  state  has  a  permanent  fund 
arising  out  of  grants  of  land  made  by  the  federal 
government  and  from  other  sources,  the  income  from 
which  is  distributed  to  the  schools  on  the  basis  of 
attendance,  enrollment,  number  of  teachers,  or 
money  expended.  These  funds  are  sometimes  given 
on  condition  that  certain  requirements  are  met  by 
the  schools  and  this  makes  better  schools.  In  sev- 
eral states,  fhe  state  pays  a  part  of  the  cost  of  voca- 
tional education,  provided  the  schools  carry  on  the 
work  properly. 

Bonds. — The  most  important  source  of  revenue 
for  the  purpose  of  constructing  public  works  is  the 
issuing  of  bonds  which  are  debts  to  be  paid  at  stated 
intervals  in  the  future.  All  governments,  national, 
state  and  local,  employ  this  method.  In  1914,  there 
were  outstanding  more  than  $6,500,000,000  of  bonds 
of  all  the  governments. 

The  purpose  of  issuing  bonds  is  to  distribute  the 
expense  of  public  works  so  that  future  generations 
which  are  to  share  the  benefits  shall  likewise  share 
the  cost.  It  would  be  unfair  to  this  generation  to 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  323 

pay  entirely  for  works  which  will  be  used  by  the  next 
generation.  Government  bonds  usually  bear  a  low 
rate  of  interest  because  they  are  considered  very 
safe  investments  and  people  seek  them  even  at  a 
low  rate  of  interest.  They  are  usually  made  pay- 
able at  different  times  so  as  to  distribute  the  burden, 
and  the  interest  is  paid  annually  or  semi-annually. 

Good  financiers  would  provide  that  bonds  should 
be  issued  only  for  works  which  are  permanent  in 
character.  It  would  be  unjust  to  burden  our  chil- 
dren with  bonds  issued  for  purposes  from  which  we 
alone  profited.  Bonds  should  not  run  for  a  period 
so  long  that  the  works,  which  they  were  issued  to 
build,  shall  be  worn  out  before  the  bonds  are  paid. 
Some  states  have  issued  bonds  for  highways  pay- 
able in  fifty  years  although  the  roads  constructed 
from  the  proceeds  would  be  worn  out  many  years 
before  the  bonds  are  paid. 

It  is  good  business  practise  to  issue  bonds  -for 
permanent  purposes  if  sound  financial  principles  are 
observed.  Much  of  the  great  progress  already  made 
in  many  lines,  such  as  the  building  of  roads  and 
schoolhouses,  has  been  accomplished  by  means  of 
bond  issues.  The  government  should  use  the  pru- 
dence in  going  into  debt  which  individuals  exercise  in 
handling  their  own  affairs. 

Provisions  to  Pay  Bonds. — When  bonds  are  issued 
some  provision  should  be  made  to  pay  them  when 
due  just  as  an  individual  makes  provision  for  pay- 
ing his  debt  when  due. 


324  OUR  AMERICA 

Two  methods  are  followed: 

1.  Sinking  Funds. 

2.  Serial  Bonds. 

Sinking  funds  are  provided  to  meet  a  debt.  Every 
year  a  certain  amount  is  added  to  the  fund,  usually 
from  a  tax,  and  this  fund  is  kept  at  interest  until  a 
debt  is  due.  The  amount  of  the  sinking  fund  will  be 
enough  to  pay  the  debt  as  it  falls  due. 

Serial  bonds  are  preferable  to  the  sinking  fund. 
These  bonds  are  made  in  series  so  that  a  portion 
comes  due  each  year.  A  special  tax  can  then  be 
levied  each  year  and  the  proceeds  used  to  meet  each 
bond  as  it  comes  due. 

Planning  Expenditures — The  Budget. — The  finan- 
cial affairs  of  the  governments,  national,  state  and 
local,  should  be  conducted  with  intelligence  and  care- 
ful planning.  We  ought  to  know  where  the  money 
comes  from  and  where  it  goes.  The  statements  con- 
cerning the  public  finances  should  be  made  so  clear 
that  the  people  may  readily  understand  them. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  year  the  budget  for  the 
year  should  be  prepared  showing  just  what  it  is  pro- 
posed to  spend  money  for,  and  just  where  the  money 
is  coming  from.  Expenditures  should  be  kept  with- 
in the  income  and  if  more  money  is  needed,  it  should 
be  provided  for  before  the  money  is  expended.  More- 
over, the  people  should  be  informed  as  to  all  details 
of  plans  for  raising  revenue  and  spending  it. 

Proposed  Reforms  in  Taxation. — Many  proposals 
are  made  to  reform  the  methods  of  taxation,  each 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  325 

seeking  greater  fairness.  Among  the  proposals  which 
are  made  are:  the  single  tax;  progressive  taxation 
and  classification  of  property  with  a  different  rate 
upon  each  class. 

The  Single  Tax. — The  single  tax,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, is  a  tax  upon  one  thing,  only — land.  No  tax 
is  levied  under  this  plan  upon  buildings  and  other 
improvements.  The  theory  is  that  by  taxing  land  it 
forces  people  to  use  their  land,  and  the  increased 
business  makes  the  land  in  greater  demand  and 
thereby  increase  its  value  to  offset  the  tax.  Under 
such  a  tax,  there  is  no  chance  for  land  speculators 
who  hold  their  land  for  an  increase  in  value. 

The  Progressive  Tax. — The  progressive  tax  is  a 
graded  tax  upon  property.  The  rate  increases  as 
the  amount  of  a  man's  property  increases.  Thus,  a 
man  who  has  one  thousand  dollars  may  pay  one  per 
cent.,  while  a  person  having  a  million  dollars  pays  a 
higher  rate.  The  theory  of  this  kind  of  taxation  is 
that  persons  who  have  large  amounts  of  property 
are  able  to  pay  more  taxes  in  proportion  to  their 
property. 

Classification  of  Property. — Classification  of  prop- 
erty for  taxation  is  a  plan  to  assess  different  kinds 
of  property  at  different  rates.  This  makes  it  possi- 
ble to  fix  a  rate  upon  each  kind  of  property  accord- 
ing to  its  ability  to  stand  the  tax. 

Assessing  and  Collecting  Taxes. — The  work  of  as- 
sessing and  collecting  the  taxes  is  done  in  the  nation 
by  custom  house  officers  and  internal  revenue  col- 


326  OUR  AMERICA 

lectors.  The  former  have  charge  of  the  custom 
houses  and  collect  the  tariff  upon  goods  imported. 
The  latter  are  scattered  throughout  the  country  and 
collect  the  income  taxes  and  the  tax  upon  liquors, 
tobaccos,  etc.  All  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury. 

State  and  local  taxes  are  collected  by  local  collec- 
tors or  treasurers  after  the  property  has  been  as- 
sessed by  the  local  assessors.  Many  of  the  states  have 
county  assessors  or  boards  who  try  to  make  assess- 
ments in  different  townships  more  uniform.  A  state 
tax  commission  or  commissioner  is  provided  in  many 
states  whose  duty  it  is  to  help  enforce  the  tax  laws 
to  try  to  make  assessments  uniform  throughout  the 
State  and  to  bring  about  greater  justice  in  taxation. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Why  should  each  person  pay  his  share  of  the  taxes? 

What  should  be  the  test  of  the  amount  which  each  person 
should  pay  in  taxes  ? 

Should  the  tax  for  building  roads  be  paid,  principally,  by 
those  who  use  the  roads  ? 

Should  the  tax  for  education  be  paid,  principally,  by  those 
who  have  children  to  send  to  school  ? 

How  is  property  in  your  community  assessed  for  taxa- 
tion? Who  does  the  work?  How  is  the  official  who  does 
the  work  chosen?  How  can  more  competent  assessors 
be  selected? 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  assessing  property  in  differ- 
ent townships  or  counties  at  different  percentages  of  value  ? 

Find  the  approximate  cost  of  paving  streets  with 
different  kinds  of  paving  materials  and  fix  the  amount 
which  should  be  charged  against  each  piece  of  property 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVICS  327 

in  a  given  block.  (This  will  make  it  necessaiy  to  get  an 
exact  plat  of  the  block  and  to  apply  the  exact  method  in 
use  in  your  city.) 

Suppose  that  the  cost  of  macadamizing  a  highway  were 
assessed  against  the  abutting  property.  What  would  be 
the  amount  assessed  against  the  farmers  in  your  school 
district  if  the  roads  were  all  macadamized  and  were  to  cost 
eight  thousand  dollars  a  mile? 

Would  it  be  desirable  to  lay  a  progressive  tax  upon 
property,  the  rate  to  increase  according  as  the  amount  of 
property  increases? 

Get  the  facts  about  assessments  of  as  many  pieces  of 
property  as  you  can  and  compare  the  amount  of  assess- 
ment with  the  values. 

Should  bonds  be  issued  to  pay  any  part  of  the  yearly 
expense  of  government? 

What  is  the  purpose  of  a  budget?  Why  should  there  be 
full  public  knowledge  of  the  proposed  budget?  Does  your 
township,  county,  town  or  city  have  any  plan  to  explain  the 
budget  to  the  people? 

What  are  the  chief  items  of  expenditure  in  your  local 
governments?  Are  these  due  in  part  to  waste  or  extrava- 
gance? How  can  greater  economy  be  secured? 

What  is  the  date  when  taxes  are  collected  in  your  com- 
munity? Are  school  taxes  collected  at  the  same  time? 

When  is  property  assessed  for  taxation  ? 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

Resolved  that  property  owners  should  not  pay  taxes  at 
exactly  the  same  rate  on  all  kinds  of  property. 

Resolved  that  the  income  tax  is  preferable  to  the  general 
property  tax. 

Resolved  that  inheritance  taxes  should  be  levied  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  limit  the  amount  which  any  person  can 
inherit. 

Resolved  that  tariff  duties  should  be  levied  at  a  low  rate 
instead  of  a  protective  rate. 


328  OUR  AMERICA 

WHERE  TO  LOOK  FOR  FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics. 

Chap.  XXXI  "Taxation." 

Plehn,  Government  Finance  in  the  United  States. 
Fillebrown,  A,  B,  C  of  Taxation. 

(Single  Tax  Theory  of  Socialization.) 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth. 

Chap.  XLIII  "State  Finances." 

Chap.  XVII  "Congressional  Finance." 
Howe,  The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems. 

Chap.  XXIII  "New  Sources  of  City  Revenue." 

Chap.  XXII  "The  City  Budget." 
Debaters'  Handbook,  The  Single  Tax. 
Debaters'  Handbook,  The  Income  Tax. 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State  Tax  Commissioner  or  Commissioners  (if  your  state 

has  such  officials). 
Local  tax  officials. 
National  Tax  Association. 
United  States  Census  Bureau.     (Publishes  Statistics  on 

Wealth,  Debt  and  Taxation.) 
Single  Tax  Association. 


THE   END 


APPENDIX 


OUTLINE  OF  THE  POWERS  AND  DUTIES  OF 
FEDERAL  OFFICIALS 

The  President. — By  far  the  most  important  officer  of  the 
federal  government  is  the  president.  The  president  must 
be  at  least  thirty -five  years  of  age  and  a  native-born  citizen 
of  the  United  States;  he  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
beginning  March  fourth,  following  his  election,  and  is 
eligible  to  reelection.  The  president  is  elected  indirectly. 
Voters  do  not  vote  for  candidates  for  president,  but  for 
presidential  electors,  who  are  pledged  in  advance  to  vote  for 
a  certain  candidate.  The  process  by  which  the  president 
is  inducted  into  office  is  known  as  the  inauguration.  At 
that  time  the  president  takes  the  oath  of  office,  which  is 
usually  administered  by  the  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  delivers  an  inaugural  address,  in  which  the  aims 
of  the  incoming  administration  are  set  forth.  The  powers 
exercised  by  the  president  are  very  extensive  and  vary  m 
accordance  with  the  events  of  his  administration  and  the 
character  of  the  president.  Probably  no  ruler  who  ever 
lived  exercised  such  extensive  authority  as  did  President 
Lincoln  during  the  Civil  War. 

The  most  important  functions  of  the  president  are  to 
conduct  foreign  affairs,  to  appoint  ambassadors  and  consuls 
to  foreign  countries  and  to  receive  foreign  ambassadors ;  to 
command  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States ;  to  issue 
official  proclamations;  to  submit  messages  to  Congress;  to 
recommend  political  policies  and  legislative  measures;  to 
supervise  the  preparation  of  administrative  measures,  un- 
der the  direction  of  departmental  heads ;  to  summon  special 
sessions  of  Congress;  to  veto  or  approve  bills  passed  by 
Congress ;  to  exercise  the  pardoning  power ;  and  to  nominate 
and  commission  officers.  There  are  over  ten  thousand  posi- 

331 


332  APPENDIX 

tions  in  the  federal  service  which  are  filled  by  the  president. 
In  addition  to  these  strictly  official  duties,  the  influence  of 
the  president  as  chief  of  his  party  as  the  only  representa- 
tive of  the  whole  country,  is  of  the  greatest  practical  con» 
sequence. 

Vice-President. — The  qualifications  for  vice-president  are 
the  same  as  those  for  president,  and  he  is  chosen  for  the 
same  term  and  in  the  same  manner.  In  case  of  the  death  or 
disability  of  the  president,  the  vice-president  succeeds  to 
that  office.  The  only  duty  of  the  vice-president  is  to  pre- 
side over  the  Senate,  and  in  the  case  of  a  tie  to  cast  the 
deciding  vote.  An  aggressive  and  popular  man  as  vice- 
president  usually  exercises  considerable  personal  influence 
in  spite  of  his  lack  of  power. 

The  Cabinet. — The  cabinet  is  composed  of  the  secretaries 
in  charge  of  the  executive  departments  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment. At  the  present  time  there  are  ten  members.  The 
departments  of  State,  Treasury  and  War  and  the  office  of 
attorney-general  were  in  existence  in  1789,  as  was  also  the 
office  of  postmaster-general,  but  the  latter  was  not  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  cabinet  portfolio  until  1829,  and  the  attor- 
ney-general was  not  recognized  as  the  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Justice  until  1878.  The  Navy  Department  was 
created  in  1798;  the  Department  of  Interior  in  1849; 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1889;  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  in  1903 ;  and  the  Department  of  Labor 
in  1913.  The  cabinet  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Constitution. 
All  cabinet  officers  are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  but  the  president  may 
remove  any  cabinet  officer  at  his  discretion.  Cabinet  offi- 
cers are  usually,  but  not  necessarily,  adherents  of  the  presi- 
dent's party.  The  duties  of  a  cabinet  officer  are  threefold: 
to  manage  the  affairs  of  his  own  department;  to  submit 
written  opinions  to  the  president  concerning  the  work  of 
his  department,  including  a  review  of  things  done  and  rec- 
ommendations for  the  future;  and  to  sit  in  consultation 
with  his  colleagues  and  the  president  to  determine  and  out- 
line the  political  course  of  the  administration.  When  the 


APPENDIX  333 

president  is  in  Washington,  the  cabinet  meets  regularly 
on  Tuesday  and  Friday  of  each  week. 

Secretary  of  State. — The  secretary  of  state  is  the  most 
important  officer  of  the  cabinet.  The  duties  of  the  secre- 
tary of  state  are  threefold:  he  has  charge  of  the  great 
seal  which  he  affixes  to  all  presidential  commissions  and 
other  executive  instruments ;  he  is  the  custodian  of  the  offi- 
cial and  authentic  government  records ;  and  he  is  entrusted 
by  the  president  with  the  conduct  of  all  international  rela- 
tions. Constitutional  amendments  proposed  by  Congress 
are  submitted  to  the  several  states  by  the  secretary  of  state, 
who  likewise  announces  the  ratification  of  amendments  by 
an  official  proclamation.  The  Department  of  State  is  divided 
into  eight  bureaus,  each  of  which  is  entrusted  with  a  par- 
ticular branch  of  the  work. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — The  duties  of  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury  are  to  collect  the  public  revenue,  to  pro- 
vide for  its  safe  keeping,  to  disburse  it  in  the  payment  of 
the  current  expenses  of  the  government  and  the  public  debt, 
and  to  issue  and  redeem  the  currency.  The  organization  of 
the  department  is  very  complex;  there  are  over  7,000  em- 
ployees in  Washington  and  20,000  resident  elsewhere.  The 
chief  items  of  the  public  funds  are  the  customs  duties  col- 
lected at  ports  of  entry  by  124  collectors  stationed  near  the 
borders  of  the  country  and  39  surveyors  stationed  in  the  in- 
terior; the  internal  revenue  collected  by  67  collectors;  and 
the  corporation  anc  income  tax  collected  by  the  internal 
revenue  collectors.  The  secretary  of  the  treasury  has 
charge  of  the  coinage  of  money;  he  supervises  the  four 
mints  and  the  eight  essay  offices;  he  directs  the  office  of 
engraving  and  printing  in  which  the  paper  money,  bonds, 
postage  stamps  and  internal  revenue  stamps  are  manufac- 
tured; he  has  general  supervision  of  the  7,000  national 
banks,  which  are  examined  periodically  by  his  inspectors; 
he  has  general  charge  and  oversight  of  the  public  debt;  he 
protects  the  customs  revenue  and  prevents  smuggling  by  the 
use  of  the  Revenue  Cutter  Service  consisting  of  45  small 
craft;  and  he  prevents  the  counterfeiting  of  the  money  by 


334  APPENDIX 

the  use  of  the  Secret  Service.  In  addition  to  these  duties, 
he  has  general  charge  of  the  construction  of  public  build- 
ings, the  management  of  the  life-saving  and  public  health 
service,  the  supervision  of  the  275  life-saving  stations,  the 
establishment  of  marine  hospitals  for  the  care  of  sick  and 
disabled  seamen,  and  the  supervision  of  the  Quarantine 
Service.  The  money  of  the  United  States  is  kept  in  the 
vaults  at  Washington  and  in  nine  sub-treasuries,  each  in 
charge  of  an  assistant  treasurer,  located  at  Baltimore,  Bos- 
ton, Chicago,  Cincinnati,  New  Orleans,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco. 

Secretary  of  War. — The  secretary  of  war  has  general 
jurisdiction  over  the  military  establishment  and  the  navi- 
gable waters  of  the  United  States;  he  prepares  estimates 
of  appropriations  for  his  department  and  supervises  their 
expenditures ;  be  has  oversight  of  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point,  the  Army  War  College  at  Washington,  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion, 
questions  relating  to  bridges  over  navigable  streams,  and  the 
establishment  of  harbor  lines.  Plans  for  national  defense, 
the  management  of  the  military  forces  in  time  of  war,  and 
the  general  fighting  efficiency  of  the  army,  by  the  president's 
direction,  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  General  Staff 
Corps,  which  also  renders  professional  aid  and  assistance 
to  the  secretary  of  war  in  matters  of  command,  discipline 
and  administration,  and  consists  of  a  major-general,  who  is 
the  chief  commanding  officer,  and  twenty-eight  subordinate 
officers. 

Attorney-General. — The  attorney-general  is  the  legal 
adviser  of  the  president  and  the  heads  of  the  departments 
of  the  executive  branch  of  the  government.  He  interprets 
and  construes  ambiguous  federal  statutes ;  directs  the  work 
of  the  United  States  district  attorneys;  appears  before  the 
Supreme  Court  and  the  inferior  courts  in  all  actions  to 
which  the  general  government  is  a  party  or  is  interested; 
supervises  clerks  and  marshals  of  the  United  States  courts ; 
oversees  the  penal  and  reformatory  institutions  of  the  gen- 
eral government;  advises  the  president  in  pardon  cases; 


APPENDIX  335 

sometimes  scrutinizes  bills  passed  by  Congress  before  they 
are  signed ;  and  advises  the  president  in  the  appointment  of 
judges  and  officers  of  courts.  His  published  opinions  have 
great  weight  in  the  construction  of  statutes.  The  prosecu- 
tions which  the  attorney-general  has  been  obliged  to  under- 
take under  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law  and  the  Hepburn 
and  Elkins  Acts,  prohibiting  rebates  and  discriminations, 
have  increased  the  importance  of  his  office  and  extended 
his  authority  over  the  industry  of  the  country. 

Postmaster-General. — The  postmaster-general  has  gen- 
eral charge  and  supervision  of  the  United  States  mails.  Be- 
sides the  general  distribution  of  the  mails,  the  incidental  du- 
ties of  the  department  involve  the  appointment  of  post- 
masters, theoretically  exercised  by  the  president,  the  adjust- 
ment of  salaries,  the  city  delivery  service,  the  railway  mail 
service,  foreign  mails,  stamps,  money  orders,  registered 
mails,  classification  of  mail  matter,  redemption  of  damaged 
stamps  and  postal  cards,  the  rural  mail  service,  dead  letters, 
the  purchase  of  supplies,  the  oversight  of  post-office  build- 
ings, the  administration  of  the  postals  savings  system,  and 
the  general  inspection  of  the  service. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy. — The  secretary  of  the  navy 
has  general  charge  of  the  navy  and  the  naval  policy  of  the 
United  States.  The  secretary  and  his  first  assistant  are 
civilians,  but  they  have  the  assistance  of  a  large  number 
of  naval  officers  who  are  skilled  in  the  technical  work  of  the 
department.  .  The  work  of  the  department  includes  the 
organization  and  maneuvers  of  the  fleet;  the  recruiting  of 
marines;  the  appointment  and  promotion  of  officers;  the 
inspection  and  repair  of  vessels;  the  supervision  of  docks, 
navy  yards,  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis;  the  War 
College,  the  schools  for  enlisted  men,  hospitals,  barracks 
and  magazines ;  the  designing  and  building  of  men-of-war ; 
the  fabrication  of  armor;  the  furnishing  of  ammunition  and 
explosives;  and  the  installation  and  maintenance  of  wire- 
less and  coaling  stations.  The  Naval  Observatory,  which  is 
located  in  Washington,  publishes  the  Nautical  Almanac. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — The  secretary  of  the  interior 


336  APPENDIX 

has  general  supervision  of  a  large  number  of  matters  con- 
nected strictly  with  the  domestic  policy  of  the  United  States. 
The  department  is  subdivided  into  the  following  bureaus, 
each  with  a  definite  kind  of  work :  The  General  Land 
Office,  which  has  charge  of  the  location,  settlement,  survey, 
entry  and  patenting  of  the  public  lands  of  which  there  are 
still  about  680,000,000  acres.  The  work  of  the  bureau  is 
administered  by  a  commissioner  and  assistants  resident  in 
Washington  and  by  a  large  force  of  local  officers  who  are 
stationed  wherever  the  lands  are  located.  The  Geological 
Survey  conducts  surveys  and  prepares  maps  showing  sur- 
face formations  and  the  distribution  of  classified  rock  for- 
mations including  deposits  of  fossils,  minerals  and  other  sub- 
stances of  value.  Thus  far,  about  thirty-five  per  cent,  of 
the  country  has  been  surveyed.  The  survey  is  conducted  by 
a  director  and  a  corps  of  scientific  assistants.  The  Reclama- 
tion Service  has  charge  of  the  irrigation  of  arid  lands  in 
the  West.  The  Office  of  Indian  Affairs  has  general  charge 
of  the  Indians,  who  are  wards  of  the  nation,  and  controls 
the  allotment  and  supervision  of  their  lands.  The  Patent 
Office  supervises  the  issue  of  patents  and  the  registration 
of  trade  marks.  The  Pension  Bureau  disburses  the  pensions 
granted  by  the  government  for  naval  and  military  services. 
There  are  (1916)  over  8,000,000  pensioners  who  receive 
$153,000,000  annually.  The  Bureau  of  Mines  has  powers  of 
investigation  of  all  mining  operations  including  the  safety  of 
miners,  treatment  of  ores  and  use  of  explosives.  The  Bureau 
of  Education  collects  educational  statistics  which  are  pub- 
lished annually,  has  charge  of  the  public  schools  and  the 
reindeer  industry  of  Alaska  and  administers  the  endowment 
fund  for  higher  education  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts.  The  Department  of  the  Interior  also  has  charge  of  the 
thirteen  national  parks  and  the  ten  national  monuments; 
administers  the  territories,  with  the  exception  of  the  insu- 
lar possessions ;  has  charge  of  the  government  insane  asy- 
lum, the  capitol  building  and  grounds,  Howard  University, 
the  Columbian  Institution  for  the  deaf  ajid  dumb  and  the 
Freedman's  Hospital. 


APPENDIX  337 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture. — The  secretary  of  ag- 
riculture has  advisory  supervision  of  the  agricultural  in- 
terests of  the  country.  Within  the  department  is  a  group 
of  bureaus,  each  with  a  distinct  kind  of  work.  The  Weather 
Bureau  has  charge  of  weather  forecasting,  including  the 
prediction  of  storms,  cold  waves,  frosts  and  floods,  for  the 
benefit  of  agriculture  and  navigation,  and  the  supervision  of 
the  weather  stations  which  are  scattered  all  over  the  country. 
The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  inspects  animals  and  food 
products,  and  animals  in  transit;  supervises  the  quarantine 
stations  through  which  imported  live  stock  must  pass ;  over- 
sees the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  renovated  butter; 
and  investigates  the  breeding,  feeding  and  transmissible 
diseases  of  domestic  animals.  The  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try conducts  scientific  investigations  concerning  plants  which 
are  designed  to  prevent  plant  diseases,  conserve  and  in- 
crease the  fertility  of  the  soil,  reclaim  arid  lands  by  adapt- 
ing plants  thereto,  and  improve  the  management  of  farms. 
Under  direction  of  this  bureau,  garden  seeds  are  distributed 
by  congressmen.  The  Forest  Service  has  control  of  the 
national  forest  reserves;  cooperates  with  the  state  gov- 
ernments and  individuals  in  the  management  and  more 
effective  use  of  timber ;  tests  the  strength  and  durability  of 
timber,  railroad  ties  and  telegraph  poles ;  has  charge  of  the 
forest-fire  service ;  and  is  charged  with  the  important  work 
of  conserving  forests  and  water  power.  The  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  is  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the  Pure 
Food  and  Drug  Act,  analyzes  foods  and  drugs  to  determine 
their  nutritive  and  harmful  effects,  and  conducts  prosecu- 
tions for  the  punishment  of  those  who  adulterate  or  mis- 
brand  foods  and  drugs.  The  Bureau  of  Statistics,  through 
its  46,000  field  agents,  collects  the  information  which  is 
embodied  in  the  crop  reports.  These  reports  set  forth  the 
production,  distribution  and  consumption  of  crops  and  have 
great  influence  in  forecasting  the  probable  price  of  agricul- 
tural products.  The  Bureau  of  Soils  analyzes  soils,  de- 
termines the  elements  in  which  they  are  deficient,  and  pre- 
scribes the  proper  fertilizers  and  other  methods  of  im- 


338  APPENDIX 

provement.  This  work  was  begun  in  1899  and  since  that 
time  over  360,000  square  miles  have  been  surveyed,  ana- 
lyzed and  mapped.  The  Bureau  of  Entomology  collects 
scientific  information  concerning  insects  which  are  injurious 
to  plants,  crops,  fruits  and  forests;  prepares  insecticides; 
introduces  beneficial  insects ;  assists  in  the  collection  and 
classification  of  insects;  and  investigates  the  relation  of  in- 
sects to  human  disease.  The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey 
investigates  the  geographical  distribution  of  birds  and  ani- 
mals and  their  economic  importance  and  relations;  has 
charge  of  the  national  bird  reservations  and  the  bison  range  ; 
and  enforces  the  laws,  including  the  recent  migratory  bird 
law,  intended  to  protect  wild  game.  The  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations  supervises  the  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions '-which  have  been)  established  in  every  state  and  in 
Hawaii,  Alaska,  Porto  Rico  and  Guam;  they  conduct  in- 
vestigations in  various  parts  of  the  world;  and  cooperate 
with  agricultural  colleges  and  farmers'  institutes  in  all  parts 
of  the  country.  The  Office  of  Public  Roads  supplies  ex- 
pert advice  for  the  construction,  maintenance  and  manage- 
ment of  public  highways ;  cooperates  with  the  highway  en- 
gineering departments  of  schools  and  colleges;  and  even 
constructs  model  roads  for  experimental  and  demonstra- 
tion purposes. 

The  Secretary  of  Commerce. — The  duties  of  the  sec- 
retary of  commerce  are  to  promote  and  develop  both  for- 
eign and  domestic  commerce,  to  oversee  the -mining  and 
manufacturing  interests  of  the  country  and  to  safeguard  the 
shipping  interests  and  transportation  facilities.  The  work 
of  the  department  is  so  distributed  as  to  fall  within  the 
scope  of  subordinate  bureaus.  The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce  develops  markets  at  home  and  abroad 
and  promotes  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  country; 
publishes  statistics  of  imports  and  exports  and  any  move- 
ment of  unusual  interest  to  manufacturers  and  producers; 
and  issues  daily  bulletins,  based  on  the  reports  made  by 
consular  agents,  disclosing  the  condition  of  foreign  and  do- 
mestic markets.  The  Bureau  of  the  Census  makes  an  official 


APPENDIX  339 

enumeration  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  every 
ten  years  and  supervises  the  publication  of  the  reports  in 
which  this  census  is  given ;  they  also  prepare  other  statisti- 
cal reports  in  regard  to  wealth,  debt,  taxation,  street  rail- 
ways, banking,  electric  lighting,  telephones  and  telegraphs. 
The  Bureau  of  Lighthouses  establishes  and  maintains  light- 
houses, buoys,  lightships  and  other  aids  to  navigation.  The 
Bureau  of  Standards  has  charge  of  the  standards  of  weights 
and  measures  with  which  weights  and  measures  used 
throughout  the  country  must  be  compared.  The  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  has  general  supervision  of  the  propagation  of  food 
fishes  in  waters  belonging  to  the  United  States ;  they  main- 
tain and  operate  fish  hatcheries  and  have  control  of  seal 
and  fish  industries  of  Alaska.  The  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  prepares  charts  of  the  coasts  and  navigable  waters 
of  the  United  States,  takes  deep-sea  soundings,  marks  in- 
ternational boundaries  and  ascertains  the  character  and  be- 
havior of  ocean  currents. 

Secretary  of  Labor. — The  secretary  of  labor  is  directed 
to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  wage-earners  of  the  United 
States,  to  improve  their  working  conditions  and  to  advance 
their  opportunities  for  profitable  employment.  The  im- 
portant bureaus  in  this  department  are  the  Bureau  of  Im- 
migration, which,  enforces  the  immigration  laws,  and  in- 
forms arriving  immigrants  of  desirable  positions;  the 
Bureau  of  Naturalization,  which  oversees  the  work  of  issu- 
ing naturalization  papers ;  the  Children's  Bureau,  which  in- 
vestigates all  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  children ; 
and  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  which  investigates  the 
causes  of  strikes  and  other  industrial  controversies.  A  bi- 
monthly bulletin  is  published  showing  the  condition  of  labor 
in  the  United  States  and  in  foreign  countries ;  and  the  de- 
partment has  charge  of  the  payment  of  compensation  to 
government  employees  who  sustain  injuries  during  the 
course  of  their  work. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission. — The  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  was  created  in  1889.  It  consists  of 
seven  members  appointed  by  the  president  for  terms  of 


340  APPENDIX 

seven  years,  at  salaries  of  ten  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 
The  Commission  is  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Act,  and  in  discharging  that  duty  has 
charge  of  all  interstate  railroads.  The  powers  and  duties 
of  the  Commission  are  very  extensive,  and  have  been  con- 
siderably increased  since  the  date  of  its  original  organiza- 
tion. In  providing  for  the  intelligent  enforcement  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Act,  the  Commission  has  conducted 
investigations  to  ascertain  how  the  railroads  are  managing 
their  business.  They  prescribe  uniform  schedules  and  ac- 
counts; require  publicity  of  joint  rates  agreed  upon  by 
different  transportation  systems,  and  demand  annual  re- 
ports according  to  a  simple  uniform  plan;  and  prescribe 
freight,  passenger  and  sleeping-car  rates.  By  far  the  most 
extensive  undertaking  which  the  commission  has  been 
called  upon  to  perform  is  that  of  the  physical  valuation  of 
the  railroads,  a  task  which  will  require  the  services  of  a 
large  corps  of  engineers  and  will  consume  several  years 
in  its  completion.  By  this  plan  it  is  hoped  that  the  com- 
mission will  be  able  to  determine  the  actual  value  of  all 
railroad  rights-of-way,  tracks,  yards,  depots,  cars,  locomo- 
tives, shops  and  other  visible  property  which  the  railroads 
possess.  With  this  information  in  their  possession,  the 
commission  will  be  better  able  to  determine  whether  the 
railroads  are  receiving  a  fair  return  on  their  investments 
and  whether  they  are  justified  in  charging  the  freight  and 
passenger  rates  which  they  do. 

Federal  Reserve  Board. — The  Federal  Reserve  Board 
was  created  by  an  act  approved  December  23,  1913.  The 
board  consists  of  seven  members;  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  and  the  comptroller  of  the  currency  are  members 
ex-officio;  the  other  five  members  are  appointed  by  the 
president;  two  of  the  five  must  be  men  of  banking  expe- 
rience; one  of  the  five  appointive  members  is  designated 
as  governor  and  one  as  vice-governor.  The  appointive 
members  serve  for  terms  of  ten  years  and  receive  salaries 
of  twelve  thousand  dollars  per  annum.  There  is  also  ^an 
Advisory  Council  which  consists  of  one  representative 


APPENDIX  341 

chosen  from  each  of  the  twelve  Federal  Reserve  Banks. 
The  council  acts  purely  in  an  advisory  capacity,  furnish- 
ing the  Federal  Reserve  Board  with  such  information  and 
suggestions  as  may  be  beneficial  or  indispensable  in  the  suc- 
cessful administration  of  the  law.  The  whole  country  is 
divided  into  twelve  Federal  Reserve  Districts,  each  con- 
taining a  Federal  Reserve  City,  in  which  is  located  a  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Bank,  which  may  establish  branch  or  coun- 
try banks  in  other  places  in  its  own  district.  According  to 
the  present  division  of  the  country,  the  Federal  Reserve 
Cities  are:  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Richmond, 
Atlanta,  Cleveland,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis,  Kan- 
sas City,  Dallas  and  San  Francisco.  National  banks  are 
required  to  become  members  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Sys- 
tem and  membership  is  open  to  state  banks  and  trust  com- 
panies. Each  Federal  Reserve  Bank  must  have  a  capital 
of  at  least  four  million  dollars,  and  is  supervised  by  a 
board  of  nine  directors;  three  of  these  directors  are  bank- 
ers, three  are  representatives  of  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial interests  of  the  district  and  all  six  are  elected  by  the 
banks  which  constitute  the  membership  of  the  district;  the 
other  three  are  appointed  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Board. 
The  purposes  of  the  financial  system  created  by  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Act  are  to  centralize  the  financial  resources 
of  the  country ;  to  shift  the  volume  of  currency  from  place 
to  place  in  such  manner  that  there  will  always  be  a  suf- 
ficient supply  on  hand  where  it  is  most  needed ;  and  to  issue 
bank  notes  with  which  business  may  be  transacted  tem- 
porarily until  the  need  for. this  additional  currency  passes. 
Civil  Service  Commission. — The  first  Federal  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commission  was  created  in  1871,  but  owing  to  the 
strongly  entrenched  spoils  system,  it  was  not  especially 
active  or  successful.  The  present  commission  was  created 
in  1883  and  has  done  very  creditable  work.  The  duties 
of  this  commission  are  to  prescribe  and  enforce  rules  and 
regulations  for  admission  to  the  Civil  Service  which  means 
a  job  or  employment  with  the  federal  government;  to  con- 
duct examinations  to  test  the  fitness  of  applicants  to  do  the 


342  APPENDIX 

work  which  the  government  wants  done;  and  to  classify 
all  positions  and  determine  what  kind  of  an  examination 
shall  be  given  for  each.  Applicants  who  are  successful 
in  passing  an  examination  are  placed  on  a  certified  list 
from)  which  the  president  or  the  departmental  head  selects 
an  appointee.  The  object  of  this  system  is  to  secure  able 
and  qualified  persons  and  to  eliminate  politics  in  the  selec- 
tion of  assistants  and  subordinates. 

Federal  Trade  Commission. — The  Federal  Trade  Com- 
mission was  created  in  1914.  It  consists  of  five  members 
appointed  by  the  president  for  terms  of  seven  years,  who 
receive  salaries  of  ten  thousand  dollars  per  year.  As  or- 
ganized at  present,  the  commission  consists  of  an  Economics 
Department  to  conduct  investigations,  an  Economic  Board 
of  Review  to  pass  on  matters  before  they  are  presented  to 
the  commission,  a  Legal  Department  and  a  Board  of  Law 
Review.  The  duties  of  this  commission  are  to  supervise 
and  regulate  all  industries  which  do  an  interstate  business, 
except  railroads. 


OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  STATE 
OFFICIALS  IN  THE  VARIOUS  STATES 

Governor. — The  governor  is  the  most  important  executive 
officer  of  the  state.  The  constitution  of  every  state  creates 
the  office  of  governor,  and  in  all  cases  he  is  elected  by 
popular  vote.  .As  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  state,  the 
governor  in  nearly  all  states  is  entrusted  with  the  execution 
of  the  laws,  the  appointment  and  often  the  removal  of  state 
officers,  boards  and  commissions  and  the  exercise  of  the 
pardoning  power.  In  the  execution  of  the  laws,  the  gover- 
nor has  the  assistance  of  the  state,  county  and  city  officials 
and  the  state  militia.  His  control  over  local  executive  offi- 
cers, including  county  sheriffs  and  the  municipal  police, 
varies  in  the  several  states ;  in  some  states  he  has  authority 
to  remove  officers  who  refuse  or  neglect  to  perform  their 
duties ;  in  other  states  he  has  no  power  over  such  officers ; 
but  in  all  cases  the  moral  influence  which  he  may  exert 
over  these  officers  is  so  extensive  that  they  can  not  success- 
fully disregard  his  recommendations.  As  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  military  forces  of  the  state,  the  governor  has  the 
the  power  to  call  out  the  state  militia  to  suppress  lawless- 
ness, quell  riots  and  other  disturbances.  In  case  of  war, 
of  course,  his  military  authority  is  subordinate  to  that  of 
the  president.  In  those  states  which  maintain  a  state 
police  system,  the  governor  has  another  and  very  effec- 
tive agency  for  maintaining  order;  these  police  act 
directly  under  his  orders  and  may  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the 
state.  In  a  few  states  the  governor  appoints  the  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court;  this  is  a  duty  of  the  very  highest  im- 
portance, since  by  virtue  of  the  American  doctrine  that  courts 
may  declare  laws  unconstitutional,  the  Supreme  Court 
judges  exercise  a  legislative  function  equivalent  to  a  veto. 
As  a  part  of  the  legislature,  the  duties  of  the  governor  may 

343 


344  APPENDIX 

be  of  the  greatest  importance.  He  is  the  only  person  in  the 
state  who  represents  all  the  people  in  all  cases;  he  recom- 
mends to  the  consideration  of  the  general  assembly  the  pass- 
age of  certain  laws  which  he  deems  of  importance;  these 
are  known  as  administration  measures.  He  may  prepare 
measures  and  secure  their  introduction  by  some  member 
who  is  in  sympathy  with  his  proposals,  and  measures  which 
are  known  to  emanate  from  the  governor's  office  are  be- 
coming more  frequent  and  are  regarded  with  increasing 
favor.  After  a  bill  is  passed  it  does  not  become  a  law  until 
it  secures  his  assent,  and  the  power  he  has  of  insuring  the 
defeat  of  a  measure  is  far  greater  than  that  of  any  mem- 
ber of  the  general,  assembly,  since  no  measure  which  he 
has  vetoed  becomes  a  law  unless  repassed  by  the  members 
of  both  houses,,  usually  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  Compara- 
tively few  laws  are  enacted  without  having  secured  the 
governor's  signature.  The  governor  also  has  the  power 
to  call  extra  sessions  of  the  legislature  to  consider  emerg- 
ency measures,  and  in  some  cases  only  those  matters  which 
he  recommends  in  his  message  may  be  considered  at  such 
sessions. 

Lieutenant-Governor. — The  constitutions  of  more  than 
30  states  have  created  the  office  of  lieutenant-governor.  In 
all  cases  he  is  elected  by  the  people.  In  case  of  the  death, 
removal  or  disability  of  the  governor,  the  lieutenant-gover- 
nor succeeds  to  that  office.  In  some  states  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor is  a  member  of  executive  boards,  but  his  usual  and 
only  function  is  to  preside  over  the  Senate  during  a  session 
of  the  general  assembly,  but  he  has  no  right  to  vote  except 
in  case  of  a  tie.  ;• » 

STATE  OFFICERS,  BOARDS  AND  COMMISSIONS 

Secretary  of  State. — There  is  a  secretary  of  state  in  every 
state  of  the  Union,  who  is  the  record  officer  of  the  state 
and  as  such  has  charge  of  the  official  copies  of  all  state 
papers,  including  the  enrolled  copies  of  the  constitution 
and  the  laws ;  he  has  charge  of  the  state  seal  and  certifies 
all  official  proclamations  and  other  documents.  He  receives 


APPENDIX  345 

election  returns  and  certifies  the  results  of  all  state  and 
national  elections.  In  all  cases  the  office  is  elective  and  the 
term  varies  from  one  to  four  years.  By  virtue  of  his  office 
the  secretary  of  state  frequently  discharges  other  duties  such 
as  the  issuance  of  incorporation  papers  or  the  registration 
of  automobiles. 

Attorney-General. — The  attorney-general  is  the  legal 
counsel  and  adviser  of  the  state.  He  appears  as  the  attor- 
ney for  the  state  in  the  courts  in  all  cases  in  which  the  state 
is  interested.  He  appears  in  defense  of  all  state  laws  which 
are  attacked  in  court,  and  defends  actions  brought  against 
state  officers  in  their  official  capacity.  He  also  gives  opin- 
ions to  state  and  local  officers  concerning  the  meaning  of 
laws.  The  creation  of  boards  and  commissions  has  extended 
the  duties  and  increased  the  powers  and  importance  of  the 
attorney-general.  In  more  than  forty  states  the  attorney- 
general  is  elected  by  popular  vote,  and  the  term  varies  from 
one  to  four  years. 

Treasurer. — The  treasurer  has  general  charge  of  all  state 
money  and  receives  and  pays  out  all  money  belonging  to  the 
state;  in  preparing  his  accounts,  he  is  usually  required  to 
keep  the  funds  for  different  institutions  separate;  and  he 
maintains  all  these  funds  in  banks,  which  are  usually  known 
as  public  depositories.  In  paying  out  public  money,  he  either 
makes  the  payment  directly  in  cash  or  by  check  on  a  bank  or 
state  depository,  but  no  payments  can  be  made  unless  the 
state  auditor  or  comptroller  has  first  issued  his  warrant.  The 
office  of  state  treasurer  is  usually  elective. 

Auditor  or  Comptroller. — The  auditor  or  comptroller  is 
the  state  bookkeeper.  Before  any  claim  against  the  state 
is  paid,  he  must  be  sure  that  the  claim  is  valid,  that  its  pay- 
ment has  actually  been  authorized  by  law  and  that  the  neces- 
sary funds  have  been  appropriated  and  are  available.  No 
state  funds  can  be  paid  out  unless  the  auditor  or  comp- 
troller first  issues  his  warrant.  Auditors  are  frequently 
members  of  state  executive  boards,  such  as  the  board  of 
pardons,  board  of  equalization,  tax  board  and  board  of  edu- 
cation. The  office  of  state  auditor  is  provided  for  in  most 


346  APPENDIX 

state  constitutions  and  they  are  usually  elective.  In  many 
states  the  auditor  also  performs  the  duty  of  bank  and  in- 
surance commissioner  of  departments. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. — The  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  or  commissioner  of  education,  has  gen- 
eral charge  of  the  entire  educational  system  of  the  state,  but 
his  powers  vary  widely  in  different  states.  In  some  states 
he  examines  and  licenses  teachers ;  assists  in  the  preparation 
of  examination  questions;  fixes  standards  of  qualifications 
for  teachers;  oversees  high  schools;  directs  the  work  in 
industrial  and  vocational  education;  apportions  the  school 
funds  on  the  basis  prescribed  by  law ;  and  collects  and  pub- 
lishes educational  statistics.  By  virtue  of  his  office  he  is 
usually  a  member  of  the  state  board  of  education,  if  one 
exists,  and  as  such  may  assist  in  directing  the  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  state.  There  is  a  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  in  practically  every  state.  In  most 
states  the  office  is  elective  and  the  term  varies  from  one  to 
five  years. 

Board  of  Health. — Boards  of  health  exist  at  the  present 
time  -in  forty-seven  states.  In  some  states  their  powers  are 
strictly  limited,  in  other  states,  such  as  Minnesota,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Indiana,  the  rules  and  regulations  issued  by  the 
board  of  health  have  the  same  force  as  law.  In  general,  the 
duties  of  state  boards  of  health  are  to  safeguard  and  pro- 
mote the  public  health,  and  for  that  purpose  they  are  author- 
ized to  establish  quarantines  against  contagious  diseases, 
abate  nuisances  and  otherwise  promote  public  health  pro- 
tection. Among  the  detailed  duties  which  they  perform  may- 
be enumerated  the  free  distribution  of  vaccines  and  anti- 
toxins, the  inspection  of  tenement  houses  to  determine 
whether  they  are  fit  for  human  habitation,  the  better  care 
and  embalming  of  the  dead,  the  inspection  of  water  supplies 
to  insure  its  purity,  the  proper  disposition  of  garbage,  filth 
and  carcasses  of  dead  animals,  the  enforcement  of  regula- 
tions relative  to  the  ventilation  of  schoolhouses  and  factories 
and  the  sale  of  impure  food  and  drugs. 

Public  Service   Commission. — The   state   public   service 


APPENDIX  347 

commission  has  general  control  of  all  public  utilities  which 
include  steam,  interurban  and  street  railroads,  waterworks, 
gas  works,  telegraph  and  telephone  systems.  Their  duties 
are,  upon  complaint,  to  fix  maximum  rates  which  these  pub- 
lic utilities  may  charge  for  their  services;  to  prescribe  the 
kind  and  quality  of  service  which  must  be  supplied;  to 
require  the  installation  of  health  and  safety  devices;  to  in- 
vestigate accidents ;  to  hear  complaints  made  by  patrons ;  to 
approve  franchises ;  and  to  authorize  the  issuance  of  stocks 
and  bonds.  In  several  of  the  states  the  commission  is  called 
the  railroad  commission. 

Fire  Marshal. — Several  of  the  states  have  created  the 
office  of  fire  marshal  whose  duty  it  is  to  reduce  the  fire 
losses  of  the  state.  This  is  done  by  the  issuance  of  rules 
and  regulations  providing  for  the  proper  disposition  of 
combustible  material,  the  storing  of  inflammable  substances, 
such  as  gasoline  and  explosives,  and  the  condemnation  and 
destruction  of  buildings  in  which  fires  might  originate  and 
spread  to  other  buildings.  One  of  his  chief  functions  is  to 
spread  information  on  the  prevention  of  fires. 

Superintendent  of  Insurance. — The  duty  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  insurance  is  to  supervise  and  regulate  insurance 
companies.  In  some  states  this  function  is  discharged  by 
a  separate  board  and  in  others  it  is  entrusted  to  some  other 
state  officer,  such  as  the  auditor  or  comptroller.  While  these 
supervisory  functions  are  not  uniform  in  the  different  states 
they  include  in  general  the  power  to  determine  whether  in- 
surance companies  are  properly  organized  and  managed. 
They  also  have  power  over  the  filing  of  reports,  the  invest- 
ment of  assets,  the  licensing  of  agents  and  in  a  few  states 
the  regulation  of  fire  insurance  rates. 

Banking  Department. — The  duty  of  examining  state  banks 
is  entrusted  in  some  states  to  a  special  board  and  in  others 
tcfsome  state  officer,  such  as  the  bank  superintendent,  audi- 
tor or  comptroller.  Inspectors  of  the  banking  department 
examine  all  state  banks  frequently  to  determine  whether  they 
are  in  a  safe  and  solvent  condition.  Regular  and  special 
reports  are  required  to  be  made  to  the  banking  department. 


348  APPENDIX 

Tax  Commissioners. — There  are  permanent  tax  commis- 
sions in  thirteen  states  and  a  permanent  tax  commissioner 
in  six  states.  The  commissioner  or  commissioners  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  in  all  states  except  North  Carolina, 
where  the  office  is  elective.  The  duties  of  these  officers  are 
to  assess  property,  which  extends  into  more  than  one  coun- 
ty, such  as  railroads,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  and  ex- 
press and  sleeping  car  service;  they  equalize  assessments 
between  different  localities  of  the  state;  instruct  local  as- 
sessors in  the  performance  of  their  duties ;  and  prescribe 
uniform  methods  in  imposing  and  recording  assessments. 
In  a  considerable  number  of  states,  special  or  temporary  tax 
commissions  have  been  created  to  investigate  the  tax  ques- 
tion, determine  the  defects  in  existing  laws  and  recommend 
desirable  changes. 

Board  of  Pardons. — The  constitutions  of  a  considerable 
number  of  the  states  provide  for  the  creation  of  a  board 
of  pardon.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  board  to  consider  all 
applications  made  by  convicts  who  are  serving  a  sentence 
in  any  of  the  penal  or  reformatory  institutions  of  the  state, 
asking  to  be  discharged  before  they  have  served  the  full 
term  for  which  they  were  sentenced.  The  governor  usually 
accepts  the  recommendations  of  the  board  and  acts  accord- 
ingly in  extending  clemency  to  prisoners  who  have  mani- 
fested a  genuine  desire  to  reform. 

Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections. — It  is  the  duty  of  the 
state  board  of  charities  and  corrections  to  visit,  inspect, 
supervise  and  report  upon  all  benevolent,  reformatory  and 
charitable  institutions  administered  by  the  state  or  by  any 
county,  municipality  or  private  organization  therein,  and 
to  care  for  and  oversee  dependent  and  delinquent  children. 
In  a  number  of  states  the  duty  of  managing  all  the  institu- 
tions is  in  the  hands  of  the  state  board. 

Highway  Commissioner. — To  promote  the  good  roads 
movement  the  office  of  highway  commissioner  has  been 
created  in  several  of  the  states.  The  duties  of  the  commis- 
sioner are  to  map  out  important  trunk  line  roads;  to  de- 
termine the  amount  of  traffic  over  roads  in  various  parts 


APPENDIX  349 

of  the  state ;  to  prescribe  material  for  and  the  proper  scien- 
tific methods  of  road  construction;  to  conduct  experiments 
in  road  making ;  to  pass  upon  road  plans ;  to  administer  the 
state  road  fund ;  and  to  cooperate  with  local  officials  in  the 
solution  of  the  highway  problem. 

Conservation  Commission. — A  few  of  the  states  have 
created  conservation  commissions  whose  duty  it  is  to  pro- 
mote the  conservation  of  the  natural  resources  of  the 
state,  including  minerals,  forests,  water  power,  wild  game, 
the  soil  and  other  resources  which  are  irreplacable. 

Board  of  Irrigation  and  Drainage. — Most  of  the  western 
states,  having  extensive  areas  of  arid  lands,  have  created 
irrigation  commissions  whose  duty  it  is  to  provide  for  the 
reclamation  of  these  lands  by  the  construction  of  irrigation 
works,  and  to  cooperate  with  the  Reclamation  Service  of 
the  federal  government.  In  some  of  the  central  and  soutn- 
ern  states,  having  large  tracts  of  swamp  lands,  drainage 
commissions  have  been  created  to  supervise  extensive 
drainage  projects  and  to  provide  for  the  coordination  of 
closely  related  local  projects. 

Fish  and  Game  Commission. — Fish  and  game  commissions 
exist  in  practically  every  state  in  the  Union.  The  functions 
of  these  commissions  are  to  propagate  and  distribute  food 
and  game  fishes ;  to  enforce  the  laws  enacted  for  the  pro- 
tection and  preservation  of  fish  and  game;  to  license  hunt- 
ers and  fishermen;  to  collect  and  disburse  the  revenue  de- 
rived from  these  sources;  and  to  manage  fish  hatcheries. 
Some  of  the  tide-water  states  have  separate  commissions 
to  supervise  inland  and  shore  fisheries,  including  oyster  beds. 
In  all  cases  the  members  of  these  commissions  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor. 

Workmen's  Compensation  Commissions. — In  a  consid- 
erable number  of  states  compensation  commissions  have 
been  created  to  administer  the  workmen's  compensation  laws 
which  have  been  enacted  during  the  last  few  years,  and  to 
arbitrate  industrial  controversies  which  arise  between  capi- 
tal and  labor. 

Labor  Bureaus. — Bureaus  of  labor  and  labor  statistics 


350  APPENDIX 

exist  in  forty-one  states.  They  usually  preceded  the  crea- 
tion of  workmen's  compensation  commissions  and  in  many 
cases  have  been  absorbed  by  the  latter.  They  were  created 
to  collect  accurate  information  as  a  basis  for  legislation 
regulating  the  relation  of  employers  and  employees,  in 
order  to  better  the  conditions  of  labor  and  furnish  pub- 
lished statistics  for  the  use  of  labor  organizations,  employ- 
ers of  labor,  statesmen  and  social  workers. 

State  Board  of  Agriculture. — There  are  departments  of 
agriculture  in  more  than  thirty  states,  but  the  duties  which 
they  are  called  upon  to  discharge  are  not  uniform.  In  gen- 
eral these  departments  oversee  the  agricultural  work  of  the 
state  and  enforce  the  laws  pertaining  to  agriculture,  and 
have  general  supervision  of  the  state  fair.  In  some  of  the 
states,  the  commission  also  has  charge  of  commerce,  indus- 
tries, mining,  immigration  and  labor. 

Printing  Board. — The  amount  of  supplies  which  a  state 
consumes  in  the  course  of  a  year  and  the  quantity  of  print- 
ing and  binding  which  must  be  done  are  very  extensive  and 
involve  the  expenditure  of  thousands  of  dollars.  Practi- 
cally all  of  the  states  have  provided  for  the  creation  of  a 
state  board  of  printing  and  binding,  which  has  general 
supervision  of  the  purchase  and  distribution  of  supplies  and 
the  printing  of  the  annual  or  biennial  reports  issued  by  the 
state  officers.  In  addition,  the  board  usually  has  general 
oversight  of  the  printing  of  legislative  bills,  the  session  laws 
of  the  general  assembly,  the  preparation  of  the  ballots  used 
at  state  and  national  elections,  and  binding  of  newspapers 
and  other  documents  which  are  received  and  preserved  for 
historical  purposes  in  the  archives  of  the  state  library.  Con- 
tracts for  printing,  binding  and  supplies  are  usually  let  to  the 
lowest  responsible  competitive  bidder.  The  person  obtain- 
ing such  a  contract  is  usually  known  as  the  state  printer 
and  does  all  printing  for  the  state  for  the  period  of  time 
specified  in  his  contract.  In  some  states  the  state  has  its 
own  printing  plant,  and  in  others  prison  labor  is  employed 
in  doing  some  of  the  state  printing. 

Examining  Boards. — It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  state  that 


APPENDIX  351 

those  of  its  citizens  who  practise  the  profession  should 
be  capable  of  rendering  efficient  and  intelligent  services. 
For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  fitness  of  persons  desir- 
ing to  enter  the  professions  and  to  exclude  those  who  are 
incompetent,  examining  boards  have  been  created  to  ex- 
amine and  license  physicians,  dentists,  embalmers,  nurses, 
lawyers,  pharmacists  and  veterinary  surgeons.  These  du- 
ties are  usually  performed  by  special  boards.  These  boards 
are  usually  appointed  by  the  governor;  they  are  composed 
of  practitioners  of  known  ability  and  high  standing  in 
their  professions ;  and  they  hold  one  or  more  examinations 
each  year.  These  boards  also  have  the  authority  to  revoke 
licenses  for  immorality,  negligence  or  malpractice.  Several 
states  have  a  board  of  mines  to  examine  miners,  mine  .fore- 
men, shot-firers  and  fire-bosses. 

State  Board  of  Accounts. — In  a  few  states  the  state 
board  of  accounts  supervises  the  financial  accounts  of  all 
state  officers  and  of  all  the  officers  of  counties,  townships 
and  cities.  The  purpose  of  state  supervision  is  to  see  that  all 
public  money  is  properly  expended  and  to  prevent  embez- 
zlement or  graft  on  the  part  of  public  officials.  In  order  to 
make  the  examination  of  accounts  easier,  the  state  board 
has  authority  to  prescribe  uniform  books  and  methods  of 
keeping  accounts.  If  a  public  official  is  not  sure  that  a 
contemplated  expenditure  of  public  money  is  in  strict  con- 
formity with  ,law,  he  may  obtain  an  opinion  of  the  state 
board. 

Board  of  Education. — Several  of  the  states  maintain  a 
state  board  of  education,  which  has  general  charge  of  the 
educational  work  of  the  state,  and  usually  cooperates  with 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  carrying  out 
its  plans.  The  members  of  these  state  boards  are  usually 
men  of  acknowledged  educational  standing,  and  frequently 
are  actively  engaged  in  school  work  and  serve  without  pay. 
In  some  states  they  formulate  the  educational  policy  of  the 
state,  determine  what  subjects  shall  be  included  in  the  com- 
mon and  high-school  curriculum,  prescribe  the  character 
of  vocational  education,  provide  for  the  classification 


352  APPENDIX 

and  certification  of  high  schools,  and  perform  other  similar 
duties. 

Entomologist. — The  state  entomologist  is  authorized  to 
enforce  the  laws  which  are  intended  to  eradicate  insects 
which  are  injurious  to  fruit  trees  and  plants,  such  as  the 
San  Jose  scale  and  destructive  moths.  He  is  empowered 
to  inspect  all  nursery  stock  to  prevent  the  spread  of  plant 
diseases  and  to  destroy  orchards  which  are  found  to  be  so 
badly  infected  as  to  be  beyond  hope  of  recovery  and  likely 
to  spread  disease  to  other  trees. 

State  Library  and  Public  Library  Commission. — In  most 
of  the  states  there  is  a  state  library  or  a  public  library  com- 
mission and  in  some  states  there  are  both.  The  state  li- 
brary, is  usually  the  depository  for  state  documents  and 
historical  records.  In  some  states  it  is  a  reference  library 
where  local  libraries  or  citizens  may  borrow  books  or  refer 
questions  for  answer.  The  public  library  commission  is  or- 
ganized to  aid  local  communities  in  the  establishment  of 
libraries.  It  usually  has  charge  of  the  traveling  libraries 
which  any  community  may  borrow  from  them. 


OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  COUNTY 
OFFICERS  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STATES 

The  County. — The  county  is  the  most  common  of  the 
local  governmental  areas  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
about  3,000  counties  in  the  United  States;  Texas  has  243,v 
Rhode  Island  5,  and  Delaware  3 ;  the  average  number  of 
counties  per  state  is  from  60  to  100.  The  usual  area  of  a 
county  is  from  400  to  650  square  miles  and  the  average 
population  from  10,000  to  30,000.  Each  county  has  a  form 
of  local  government,  which  is  practically  the  same  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  a  group  of  county  officers  who 
are  entrusted  by  law  with  the  performance  of  certain  duties. 
The  importance  of  the  county  as  a  unit  of  local  govern- 
ment varies  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States.  In 
New  England,  with  its  town  meeting,  it  is  of  least  im- 
portance; in  the  South,  where  the  township  is  practically 
non-existent,  the  county  is  of  very  great  importance ;  while 
in  the  west  the  duties  of  local  government  are  about  equally 
divided  between  the  county  and  township. 

County  Board. — There  is  a  county  board  in  every  state 
with  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island;  this  board  is  usually 
composed  of  three  or  five  members,  elected  by  the  people. 
Sometimes  these  boards  are  composed  of  from  fifteen  to 
fifty  members  called  supervisors,  elected  by  the  cities  or 
townships  of  the  county.  The  county  board  exercises 
rather  extensive  powers.  It  levies  the  county  tax,  makes 
all  appropriations,  buys  county  supplies,  oversees  the  jails 
and  poor  farms,  constructs  bridges,  opens  new  roads,  ap- 
points the  non-elective  county  officers,  oversees  county  asy- 
lums and  hospitals,  authorizes  drainage  and  reclamation 
works,  sometimes  grants  liquor  licenses,  lays  out  townships 
and  election  precincts,  selects  county  depositories  for  the 
safe-keeping  of  the  public  funds,  and  constructs  county 
buildings. 

353 


354  APPENDIX 

Sheriff. — The  office  of  sheriff  is  provided  for  in  every 
state,  and  is  elective  in  all  states  except  Rhode  Island.  It 
is  the  oldest  county  office,  but  has  been  deprived  of  much 
of  its  former  importance.  The  duties  of  the  sheriff  are 
to  preserve  peace,  to  quell  riots,  to  arrest  fugitives  and 
criminals,  to  serve  papers  on  persons  who  have  violated 
the  law  and  to  take  immediate  charge  of  persons  who  have 
been  arrested  and  are  confined  in  the  county  jail  awaiting 
trial. 

Auditor. — A  county  auditor  is  provided  for  in  twenty- 
seven  states  and  the  office  is  elective  in  twelve  states.  The 
auditor  is  the  county. bookkeeper ;  he  keeps  accounts  of  all 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  county  money,  prepares  the 
books  in  which  county  taxes  are  recorded,  issues  his  war- 
rant on  the  treasurer  for  the  expenditure  of  county  money, 
and  acts  in  many  cases  as  the  clerk  of  the  county  board 
and  the  board  which  equalizes  the  assessments  for  taxes. 

Treasurer. — The  office  of  county  treasurer  exists  in  all 
states  except  two ;  in  five  states  the  office  is  appointive ;  in 
all  others  it  is  elective.  The  county  treasurer  collects  and 
pays  out  all  county  money,  and  in  some  cases  acts  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  county  board  which  equalizes  the  assessments  for 
taxes. 

Clerk  of  the  Court. — A  clerk  of  the  court  or  county  clerk 
is  provided  for  in  practically  every  state  and  the  office  is 
almost  invariably  elective.  The  duties  of  the  clerk  are- to 
keep  the  court  record;  to  summon  jurors  and  subpoena 
witnesses  for  court  trials;  to  issue  the  first  papers  to  per- 
sons desiring  to  become  naturalized  citizens;  to  prepare 
election  ballots;  to  receive,  count  and  certify  election  re- 
turns; and  to  issue  marriage,  hunting  and  fishing  licenses. 

Registrar  of  Deeds. — Every  state  must  provide  some 
method  of  recording  deeds  which  establish  title  to  land. 
In  about  half  the  states  this  work  is  done  by  an  elective 
officer  known  as  the  registrar  or  recorder  of  deeds.  In  other 
states  the  work  is  done  by  some  other  county  officer.  The 
registrar  records  deeds  and  mortgages  in  a  book  kept  for 


APPENDIX  355 

that  purpose,  and  every  person  whose  land  is  so  recorded  is 
sure  that  he  can  not  be  lawfully  deprived  of  it. 

Surveyor. — The  office  of  surveyor  is  provided  for  in 
thirty-eight  states ;  in  three  states  the  office  is  appointive  and 
elective  in  the  others.  The  duties  of  the  surveyor  are  to 
determine  and  mark  the  lines  which  separate  the  lands  of 
adjoining  owners,  to  set  corner-stones,  and  to  perform  the 
engineering  work  on  highways  and  ditches. 

Coroner. — The  county  coroner  holds  official  inquests  in 
case  of  the  sudden  death  of  any  person  in  the  county,  to 
determine  the  cause  of  the  death  and  whether  any  other 
person  is  guilty  of  murder  or  violence. 

Superintendent  of  Schools. — There  is  a  county  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  all  except  the  New  England  states. 
The  office  is  appointive  in  twelve  states  and  elective  in 
twenty-eight.  County  superintendents  exercise  general 
control  of  the  schools  of  the  county;  they  examine  and  li- 
cense teachers  and  conduct  institutes  and  associations  for 
the  benefit  of  teachers. 

Health  Officer. — There  is  a  county  health  officer  in  eigh- 
teen states,  who  in  all  cases  is  appointed.  The  county  health 
officer1  has  authority  to  quarantine  persons  who  are  afflicted 
with  contagious  diseases;  to  take  measures  necessary  to 
suppress  epidemics ;  to  order  insanitary  restaurants  and 
boarding  houses  to  be  cleaned;  and  in  some  cases  to 
fumigate  rooms  or  houses  in  which  persons  have  been  ill 
with  contagious  diseases. 

Superintendent  of  the  Poor. — Provision  has  been  made 
in  every  state  for  a  superintendent  or  overseer  of  the  poor ; 
in  some  states  there  is  a  county  officer  and  in  other  states 
a  township  officer.  The  superintendent  or  overseer  of  the 
poor  supplies  the  poor  and  needy  people  of  the  county  with 
food,  clothing,  fuel,  school-books  and  other  supplies  which 
they  may  require. 

Prosecuting  Attorney. — With  but  few  exceptions,  the 
prosecuting  attorney,  district  or  state  attorney,  in  all  states 
is  elected.  It  is  his  duty  to  prosecute  all  violators  of  the 
law  on  behalf  of  the  state.  He  also  conducts  preliminary 


356  APPENDIX 

investigations  which  are  made  by  the  grand  jury  and  gives 
them  such  other  assistance  as  they  may  require. 

Board  of  Equalisation. — Several  states  provide  for  county 
boards  of  equalization  to  adjust  the  assessments  of  property 
for  purposes  of  taxation.  This  is  to  prevent  one  township 
or  one  taxpayer  from  paying  on  an  assessment  higher  than 
another. 

County  Assessor. — There  is  a  county  assessor  in  twenty- 
five  states,  elected  in  all  cases  by  the  people.  It  is  the  usual 
duty  of  the  county  assessor  to  locate  property  which  has 
not  been  given  in  for  taxation  by  the  owners  and  enter  it 
on  the  tax  books ;  to  equalize  assessments  of  property  be- 
tween the  several  townships  of  his  county;  to  instruct  and 
cooperate  with  township  assessors  in  securing  a  just  valua- 
tion of  property  for  taxation  and  to  serve  as  a  member  of 
the  county  board  which  equalizes  the  assessments  for  taxa- 
tion. 


OUTLINE  OF  THE  USUAL  DUTIES  OF  TOWNSHIP 
OFFICERS  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STATES 

Towns  or  Townships. — The  town  or  township  is  the 
smallest  unit  of  local  government.  It  originated  in  the  New 
England  states,  where  the  name  town  has  always  been  ap- 
plied. In  the  western  states  the  term  township  has  in- 
variably been  used.  Strictly  speaking,  the  township  does 
not  exist  in  the  southern  states. 

Town  Meeting. — In  New  England,  annual  meetings  of  all 
the  electors  living  within  a  town  or  township  are  held  to 
select  officers  and  to  pass  local  ordinances  or  by-laws.  The 
local  ordinances  enacted  at  these  town  meetings  cover  a 
wide  range  of  subjects,  including  the  levy  of  the  town  tax, 
appropriations,  borrowing  money,  granting  liquor  licenses, 
and  the  adoption  of  measures  relative  to  roads,  cemeteries, 
waterworks,  the  town  hall  and  the  town  library. 

Selectmen  and  Trustees. — In  the  New  England  states, 
the  chief  officers  of  the  town  are  the  selectmen,  from  three 
to  nine  in  number,  chosen  at  the  annual  town  meeting  for 
terms  of  one  or  three  years.  The  duties  of  the  selectmen 
are  to  call  town  meetings,  to  oversee  town  property,  to  es- 
tablish highways  and  drains,  to  grant  licenses  and  to  over- 
see elections.  Occasionally,  they  serve  as  a  board  of  health, 
as  assessors,  as  overseers  of  the  poor  and  appoint  subordi- 
nate town  officers.  Elsewhere,  throughout  the  United  States 
and  particularly  in  the  central  and  western  states  the  chief 
township  officer  is  the  trustee  or  board  of  trustees.  The 
duties  of  these  officers  vary,  but  in  general  they  include  the 
general  oversight  of  township  property,  repairing  of  high- 
ways, furnishing  school  supplies,  hiring  teachers,  construct- 
ing bridges,  assisting  the  poor  and  controlling  the  elections. 

Town  Clerk. — The  town  or  township  clerk  performs  a 

357 


358  APPENDIX 

variety  of  purely  clerical  duties;  he  ranks  next  in  im- 
portance to  the  selectmen  or  trustees  and  is  usually  elective. 
His  duties  are  to  call  the  town  meetings ;  to  preserve  the 
township  records ;  to  issue  marriage,  pedler  and  auctioneer 
licenses ;  to  register  cattle  brands ;  to  approve  liquor  licenses 
and  to  take  the  township  census.  When  no  such  office 
exists,  these  duties  are  performed  by  the  trustees. 

Constable. — Constables  are  the  peace  officers  of  towns, 
townships,  counties,  precincts  or  parishes ;  and  under  direc- 
tion of  the  county  or  circuit  court  or  the  justice  of  the  peace, 
they  serve  warrants  and  make  arrests.  In  some  states,  they 
perform  the  duties  of  assessors  or  collectors  of  taxes.  In 
New  England,  constables  are  chosen  at  the  town  meetings, 
in  other  states  they  are  chosen  at  the  general  election. 

Commissioner  or  Supervisor  of  Highways. — Highway 
supervisors,  commissioners  or  path-masters  have  charge  of 
the  construction  and  repair  of  township  roads;  the  office 
is  sometimes  elective  and  sometimes  appointive.  Townships 
are  usually  divided  into  two  or  more  road  districts  and  one 
supervisor  is  assigned  to  the  management  of  each  district. 

Assessor. — It  is  the  duty  of  the  township  assessor,  where 
such  an  office  exists,  to  value  and  list  all  taxable  property 
and  polls  within  his  township  and  return  the  list  to  the 
officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  enter  these  lists  on  the  tax  books 
and  prepare  them  for  collection. 

Justice  of  the  Peace. — Justices  of  the  peace  are  minor  ju- 
dicial officers  who  are  authorized  to  prevent  breaches  of 
the  peace  and  who  possess  power  to  try  and  sentence  per- 
sons for  the  commission  of  petty  misdemeanors  and  to 
commit  for  trial  before  a  higher  court  those  accused  of 
more  serious  offenses.  In  seven  states  justices  of  the 
peace  are  appointed ;  in  all  other  states  elective.  Each  town- 
ship has  one  or  more  justices ;  terms  of  office  are  short, 
but  reelection  or  reappointment  is  the  rule. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 
(In  Congress,  July  4,  1776) 

THE     UNANIMOUS     DECLARATION     OF     THE     THIRTEEN 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

When  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which 
have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  assume  among  the 
powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God  entitle  them,  a 
decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separa- 
tion. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are 
created  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  unalienable  Rights,  that  among  these  are  Life,  Lib- 
erty and  the  pursuit  of  Happiness.  That  to  secure  these 
rights,  Governments  are  instituted  among  Men,  deriving 
their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed,  that 
whenever  any  Form  of  Government  becomes  destructive 
of  these  ends,  it  is  the  Right  of  the  People  to  alter  or  to 
abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new  Government,  laying  its 
foundation  on  such  principles  and  organizing  its  powers  in 
such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seemi  most  likely  to  effect  their 
Safety  and  Happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that 
Governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed  for 
light  and  transient  causes ;  and  accordingly  all  experience 
hath  shown,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing 
the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long 
train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the 
same  Object  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute 
Despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off 

359 


360  APPENDIX 

such  Government,  and  to  provide  new  Guards  for  their 
future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of 
these  Colonies;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  con- 
strains them  to  alter  their  former  Systems  of  Government. 
The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history 
of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct 
object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  Tyranny  over  these 
States.  To  provide  this,  let  Facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid 
world. 

He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  wholesome 
and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of  imme- 
diate and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their 
operation  till  his  Assent  should  be  obtained ;  and  when  sus- 
pended, he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommodation 
of  large  districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relin- 
quish the  right  of  Representation  in  the  Legislature,  a  right 
inestimable  to  them  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  un- 
usual, uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of 
their  Public  Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them 
into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly,  for 
opposing  with  manly  firmness  his  invasion  on  the  rights 
of  the  people. 

He  has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolutions, 
to  cause  others  to  be  elected ;  whereby  the  Legislative  Pow- 
ers, incapable  of  Annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  People 
at  large  for  their  exercise ;  the  State  remaining  in  the  mean- 
time exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without, 
and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these 
States,  for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  Laws  for  Naturali- 
sation of  Foreigners ;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage 
their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new 
Appropriations  of  Lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  of  Justice,  by  re- 


APPENDIX  361 

fusing  his  Assent  to  Laws  for  establishing  Judiciary  Pow- 
ers. 

He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his  Will  alone,  for  the 
tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of 
their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent 
hither  swarms  of  Officers  to  harness  our  People,  and  eat 
out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  Standing  Armies 
without  the  Consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military  independence  of 
and  superior  to  the  Civil  Power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdic- 
tion foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our 
laws;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  pretended  Legis- 
lation : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us. 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  from  Punishment 
for  any  Murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  In- 
habitants of  these  States. 

For  cutting  off  our  Trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world. 

For  imposing  Taxes  on  us  without  our  Consent. 

For  depriving  us  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  Trial 
by  Jury. 

For  transporting  Ub  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended 
offenses. 

For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws  in  a 
neighbouring  Province,  establishing  therein  an  Arbitrary 
government,  and  enlarging  its  Boundaries  so  as  to  render 
it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing 
the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  Colonies. 

For  taking  away  our  Charters,  ab@lishing  our  most  val- 
uable Laws,  and  altering  fundamentally  the  Forms  of  our 
Governments. 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  them- 
selves invested  with  Power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases 
whatsoever. 


362  APPENDIX 

He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by  declaring  us  out 
of  his  Protection  and  waging  War  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt 
our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  Lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  Armies  of  foreign 
Mercenaries  to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation 
and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of  Cruelty 
and  perfidy  scarcely  parallel  in  the  most  barbarous  ages, 
and  totally  unworthy  the  Head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow  Citizens  taken  Captive  'on 
the  high  Seas  to  bear  Arms  against  their  Country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  Brethren,  or  to  fall 
themselves  by  their  Hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and 
has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  fron- 
tiers, the  merciless  Indian  Savages,  whose  known  rule  of 
warfare,  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes 
and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  Oppressions  We  have  Petitioned 
for  Redress  in  the  most  humble  terms:  Our  repeated 
Petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A 
Prince,  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which 
may  define  a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  People. 

Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British 
brethren.  We  have  warned  them  from  time  to  time  of 
attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable 
jurisdiction  ove*  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have 
appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we 
have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred 
to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  inter- 
rupt our  connections  and  correspondence.  They  too  have 
been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We 
must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity,  which  denounces 
our  Separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  in  General  Congress,  Assembled,  appealing  to 


APPENDIX  363 

the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our 
intentions,  do,  in  the  Name  and  Authority  of  the  good  Peo- 
ple of  these  Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That 
these  United  States  Colonies  are,  and  of  Right  ought  to  be 
Free  and  Independent  States ;  that  they  are  Absolved  from 
all  Allegiance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  political 
connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great  Britain,  is 
and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved ;  and  that  as  Free  and  In- 
dependent States,  they  have  full  Power  to  levy  War,  con- 
clude Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and  to 
do  all  other  Acts  and  Things  which  Independent  States  may 
of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration,  with 
a  firm  reliance  on  the  Protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we 
mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes  and 
our  sacred  Honor. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1787 

PREAMBLE 

We,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  gen- 
eral welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves 
and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  CONSTITU- 
TION FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

ARTICLE  I 

SECTION  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  con- 
sist of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

SEC.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have 
the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven 
years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not, 
when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this 
Union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall 
be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  per- 

364 


APPENDIX  365 

sons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other 
persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within 
three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten 
years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The 
number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every 
thirty  thousand ;  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Rep- 
resentative; and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the 
State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three, 
Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Planta- 
tions one,  Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four, 
Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia 
ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia 
three. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any 
State,  the  Executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of 
election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker 
and  other  officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 
ment. 

SEC.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one 
vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications 
requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
state  legislatures.  ' 

Amendment  adopted  1913. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence 
of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may 
be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the 
first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second 
year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year, 
and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year, 
so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year.  When 
vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue 


366  APPENDIX 

writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies :  Provided,  That  the 
Legislature  of  any  State  may  empower  the  executive  thereof 
to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  people  fill  the 
vacancies  by  election  as  the  Legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  effect 
the  election  or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes 
valid  as  part  of  the  constitution. 

Amendment  adopted  1913. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be 
equally  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a 
President  pro  temper e,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President, 
or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeach- 
ments. When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath 
or  affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the  United  States 
is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside :  and  no  person  shall 
be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the 
members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  fur- 
ther than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to 
hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under 
the  United  States:  but  the  party  convicted  shall  neverthe- 
less be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and 
punishment,  according  to  law. 

SEC.  4.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elec- 
tions for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed 
in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Congress 
may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year, 


APPENDIX  367 

and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December, 
unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SEC.  5.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections, 
returns  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  ma- 
jority of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business; 
but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and 
may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  mem- 
bers, in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties  as  each 
House  may  provide. 

Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings, 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and 
from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts 
as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas 
and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any  question 
shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered 
on  the  journal. 

Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than 
three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the 
two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SEC.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive 
a  compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law, 
and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  They 
shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of  the 
peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at 
the  session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in 
either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for 
which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under 
the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  in- 
creased during  such  time ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House 
during  his  continuance  in  office. 

SEC.  7.     All  bills  for  raising  revenues  shall  originate  in 


368  APPENDIX 

the  House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose 
or  concur  with  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law, 
be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he 
approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with 
his  objections  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  origi- 
nated, who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  recon- 
sideration two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the 
bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the 
other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and 
if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a 
law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall 
be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  per- 
sons voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the 
journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be 
returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  ex- 
cepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress,  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  neces- 
sary (except  on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  and  before  the 
same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SEC.  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  col- 
lect taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall 
be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States, 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among 
the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 


APPENDIX  369 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uni- 
form laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies,  throughout  the 
United  States; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  se- 
curities and  current  coin  of  the  United  States ; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the 
exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on 
the  high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water. 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of 
money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two 
years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulations  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  inva- 
sions ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining,  the 
militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to 
the  States  respectively,  the  appointment  of  the  officers  and 
the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  dis- 
cipline prescribed  by  Congress ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever, 
over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may, 
by  cession  of  particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Con- 
gress, become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  pur- 
chased by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga- 


370  APPENDIX 

zines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings; 

And  to  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  prop- 
er for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and 
all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

SEC.  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons 
as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  ad- 
mit, shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or 
duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding 
ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be 
suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the 
public  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless 
in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore 
directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  com- 
merce or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of 
another:  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular 
statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of 
all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States: 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under 
them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept 
of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

SEC.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance 
or  confederation;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal; 
coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  any  thing  but  gold 
and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any 


APPENDIX  371 

bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  ob- 
ligation of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility.  No  State 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws:  and  the 
net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State 
on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to 
the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress.  No  State  shall, 
without  the  censent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage, 
keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in 
such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II 

SECTION  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a 
President  of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold 
his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with 
the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected, 
as  follows: 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legis- 
lature thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to 
the  whole  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which 
the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress :  but  no  Senator 
or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or 
profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the 
electors,  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes; 
which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United,  States. 

No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Con- 
stitution, shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen 
years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of 


372  APPENDIX 

his  death,  resignation  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for 
the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation  or  inability,  both 
of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer 
shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  ac- 
cordingly, until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President 
shall  be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  serv- 
ices, a  compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor 
diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected;  and  he  shall  not  receive,  within  that  period,  any 
other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall 
take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect  and  defend 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SEC.  2.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia 
of  the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of 
the  United  States ;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing, 
of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments, 
upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  par- 
dons for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the 
Senators  present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint 
ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of 
Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States 
whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for, 
and  which  shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the  Congress 
may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 


APPENDIX  373 

officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies 
that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  grant- 
ing commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 

SEC.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress 
information  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to 
their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
sary and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  dis- 
agreement between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  ad- 
journment, he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 
executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United 
States. 

SEC.  4.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  offi- 
cers of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on 
impeachment  for,  and.  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or 
other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III 

SECTION  1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and 
establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior 
courts,  shall*  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services,  a  compen- 
sation, which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continu- 
ance in  office. 

SEC.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in 
law  and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of 
the  United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  their  authority ; — to  all  cases  affecting  ambas- 
sadors, other  public  ministers  and  consuls ; — to  all  cases  of 
admirality  and  maritime  jurisdiction; — to  controversies  to 


374  APPENDIX 

which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ; — to  controversies 
between  two  or  more  States ; — between  a  State  and  citizens 
of  another  State; — between  citizens  of  different  States; 
between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  ,under 
grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citi- 
zens thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party, 
the  Suprerrte  Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all 
the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with 
such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
shall  be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State 
where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but 
when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at 
such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  di- 
rected. 

SEC.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist 
only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their 
enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be 
convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  wit- 
nesses to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open 
court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punish- 
ment of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  cor- 
ruption of  blood,  or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the 
person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV 

SECTION  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each 
State  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general 
laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

SEC.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or 


APPENDIX  375 

other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in 
another  State,  shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority 
of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  re- 
moved to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of 
any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  upon  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

SEC.  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress 
into  this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or 
erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State ;  nor  any 
State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or 
parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of 
the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make 
all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or 
other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing 
in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice 
any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

SEC.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State 
in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall 
protect  each  of  them  against  invasion;  and  on  application 
of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legisla- 
ture can  not  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall 
deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Con- 
stitution, or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  pro- 
posing amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to 
all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several 
States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the 
one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by 
the  Congress:  Provided,  That  no  amendment  which  may 


376  APPENDIX 

be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses 
in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article;  and  that  no  State, 
without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage 
in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI 

All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
confederation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;  and 
the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  thing 
in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and 
the  members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, to  support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall 
ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States,  shall 
be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  be- 
tween the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 


ARTICLES  IN  AMENDMENTS  OF  THE  CON- 
STITUTION 

ARTICLE  I 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or 
abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the 
right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

The  first  ten  amendments  were  adopted  in  1790  in  ful- 
filment of  a  demand  for  a  bill  of  rights.  They  apply  to  the 
national  government  and  limit  its  powers  but  do  not  re- 
strict the  power  of  the  States  with  respect  to  its  people. 

ARTICLE  II 

A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security 
of  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear 
arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any 
house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of 
war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons, 
houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall 
issue,  but  upon/ probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affir- 
mation, and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

377 


378  APPENDIX 


ARTICLE  V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  other- 
wise infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indict- 
ment of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land 
or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service 
in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be 
subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of 
life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to 
be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  lib- 
erty, or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  com- 
pensation. 

ARTICLE  VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of 
the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been 
committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascer- 
tained by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause 
of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  wit- 
nesses in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE  VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy 
shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall 
be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shajl  be  other- 
wise re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than 
according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines 
imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 


APPENDIX  379 

ARTICLE  IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights, 
shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained 
by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the 
Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States  are  reserved 
to  the  States,  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced 
or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens 
of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
State. 

This  amendment  was  adopted  in  1792. 

ARTICLE  XII 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom, 
at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted 
for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for 
as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed 
to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate ; — The  President  of  the  Sen- 
ate shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted; — The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed; 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons 


380  APPENDIX 

having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list 
of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States, 
the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quor- 
um for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of 
Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever  the 
right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth 
day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall 
act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  con- 
stitutional disability  of  the  President. 

The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice- 
President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if 
no  person  have  a  majority,  than  from  the  two  highest  num- 
bers on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ; 
a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of 
President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

This  amendment  was  adopted  in  1803. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

SECTION  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United 
States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

SEC.  2.  Power  to  enforce  prohibition.  Congress  shall 
have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

The  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  were 
the  result  of  the  Civil  War.  They  were  intended  to  free  and 
protect  the  slaves. 


APPENDIX  381 


ARTICLE  XIV 

SECTION  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside. 
No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge 
the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ; 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or 
property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any  per- 
son within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

SEC.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  count- 
ing the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any 
election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress, the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the 
members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the 
male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens 
shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

SEC.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative 
in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or 
hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States, 
or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath, 
as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in 
insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same  or  given  aid  or 
comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  .may  by  a 
vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

SEC.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  pay- 


382  APPENDIX 

ment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing 
insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection 
or  rebellion  against  the  United  States  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obli- 
gations and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

SEC.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by 
appropriate  legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV 

SECTION  1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States 
or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  con- 
dition of  servitude. 

SEC.  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XVI 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes 
on  incomes,  from  whatever  source  derived,  without  appor- 
tionment among  the  several  States,  and  without  regard  to 
any  census  or  enumeration. 

This  amendment  was  ratified  in  1913. 

ARTICLE  XVII 
See  section  3  of  Art.  I. 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 


WHERE  TO  WRITE  FOR  FURTHER 
INFORMATION 


ORGANIZATIONS 

American  Association  for  Labor  Legislation,   131   East 

23d  St.,  New  York  City. 

The  American  City,  93  Nassau  St.,  New  York  City. 
American  Civic  Association,  913  Union  Trust  Building, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  801-809  G  Street,  N.  W., 

Washington,  D.  C. 
American     Highway    Association,     Colorado     Building, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
American    Home    Economics    Association,    Station    N.. 

Baltimore,  Md. 
American    Medical   Association,    535    N.    Dearborn    St., 

Chicago,  111. 
American  National  Red  Cross,  1624  H  St.,  Washington, 

D.  C. 

American  Peace  Society,  31  Beacon  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
American   Prison  Association,   Secretary   Commissioner 

of  Charities  and  Corrections,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
American  Public  Health  Association,  755  Boylston  St., 

Boston,  Mass. 
National   American    Woman   Suffrage   Association,   505 

Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  30  Church  St., 

New  York  City. 
National  Association,  Opposed  to  Woman  Suffrage,  37  W. 

39th  St.,  New  York  City. 
National  Civil  Service  Reform  League,  79  Wall  St.,  New 

York  City. 

385 


386  WHERE  TO  WRITE 

National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  315 
Plymouth  Court,  Chicago,  111. 

National  Conference  on  City  Planning,  19  Congress  St., 
Boston,  Mass. 

National  Conservation  Congress,  Riggs  Building,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

National  Education  Association,  D.  W.  Springer,  Secy., 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

National  Housing  Association,  105  East  22d  St.,  New  York 
City. 

National  Municipal  League,  North  American  Building, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

National  Security  League,  31  Pine  St.,  New  York  City. 

National  Short  Ballot  Organization,  383  Fourth  Ave., 
New  York  City. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Edu- 
cation, 140  West  42d  St.,  New  York  City. 

National  Tax  Association,  15  Dey  St.,  New  York  City. 

Pan-American  Union,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Playgrounds  Association  of  America,  1  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  City. 

Proportional  Representation  League,  Secretary,  Haver- 
ford,  Pa. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  105  East  22d  St.,  New  York 
City. 

Single  Tax  Association,  150  Nassau  St.,  New  York  City. 

PUBLIC  OFFICERS 

U.  S.  Officers,  Departments,  Bureaus  and  Commissions, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

State  Officers,  Boards  and  Commissions,  State  Capital. 
County  Officers,  County  Seat. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


American  Highway  Association 

Official  Good  Roads  Year  Book  of  the  United  States. 

(Annual.) 
Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde 

Country-Life  Movement  in  the   United  States.     220p. 

N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1911.     (Rural  Outlook  Set.) 
Baldwin,  Simeon  E. 

American  Judiciary.     403p.      N.    Y.,    Century,    1905. 

(American  State  Series.) 
Beard,  Charles  A. 

American  Government  and  Politics.     New  and  rev.  ed. 

788p.    N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1915. 
Benson,  O.  H.  and  George  Herbert  Betts 

Agriculture;  a  text  for  the  school  and  the  farm.     New 

enl.  ed.  494p.    Bobbs,  1915. 
Betts,  George  Herbert  and  Otis  Earle  Hall 

Better  Rural  Schools.    512p.  illus.    Indianapolis,  Bobbs, 

1914. 
Bryce,  James 

American  Commonwealth.     2v.  New  ed.,  rev.  and  enl. 

N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1911. 
Burch,  Henry  R.,  and  Scott  Nearing. 

Elements  of  Economics;  with  special  reference  to  Amer- 
ican conditions.     365p.     N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1912. 
Commons,  John  R. 

Proportional  Representation;  second  edition  with  chap- 
ters on  the  initiative,  the  referendum  and  primary 
elections.     369p.    N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1907. 
Coulter,  John  Lee. 

Cooperation   among  Farmers.     281p.   N.   Y.,    Sturgis, 

1914.     (Farmer's  Practical  Library.) 
Davis,  Philip,  ed. 

Field  of  Social  Service.     430p.   illus.     Boston,   Small, 
1915. 

389 


390  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Debaters'  Handbook  Series,  pub.  by  H.  W.  Wilson  Co., 
.     White  Plains,  N.  Y. 

Capital  Punishment;  by  C.  E.  Fanning.  Ed.  2,  rev. 
239p.  1913. 

Commission  Plan  of  City  Government;  by  E.  C.  Rob- 
bins.  Ed.  3,  rev.  and  enl.  ISOp.  1912. 

Compulsory  Insurance;  by  E.  D.  Bullock.  266p.   1912. 

Direct  Primaries;  by  C.  E.  Fanning.  Ed.  3,  rev.  and 
enl.  145p.  1911. 

Immigration;  by  M.  K.  Reely.    315p. 

Income  Tax;  by  E.  M.  Phelps.     Ed.  2,  rev.  and  enl., 
147p.  1911. 

Initiative  and  Referendum;  by  E.  M.  Phelps.  Ed.  3, 
rev.  and  enl.  209p.  1914. 

Monroe  Doctrine;  by  E.  M.  Phelps.    253p.  1915. 

Mothers'  Pension;  by  E.  D.  Bullock.    ISSp.  1915. 

Municipal  Ownership;  by  J.  E.  Morgan  and  E.  D.  Bul- 
lock. Ed.  2,  rev.  and  enl.  248p.  1914. 

Recall,  Including  Recall  of  Judges  and  Judicial  De- 
cisions; by  E.  M.  Phelps.  Ed.  2,  rev.  and  enl.  273p. 
1915. 

Single  Tax;  by  E.  D.  Bullock.    199p.  1915. 

Woman  Suffrage;  by  E.  M.  Phelps/  Ed.  2,  rev.  162p. 
1910. 

Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn  Dewey 

Schools  of  Tomorrow;  316p.  illus.    N.  Y.,  Button,  1915. 

Farwell,  Parris  T. 

Village  Improvement.  362p.  illus.  N.  Y.,  Sturgis,  1913. 
(Farmer's  Practical  Library.) 

Fillebrown,  Charles  Bowdoin. 

A.  B.  C.  of  Taxation.  Ed.  2,  236p.    Doubleday,  1909. 

Finley,  John  H.  and  John  F.  Sanderson. 

American  Executive  and  Executive  Methods.  352p. 
N.  Y.,  Century,  1908.  (American  State  Series.) 

Godfrey,  Hollis. 

Health  of  the  City.     372p.    Boston,  Houghton,   1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  391 

Harris,  Henry  F. 

Health  on  the  Farm;  a  manual  of  rural  sanitation  and 
hygiene,  306p.  N.  Y.,  Sturgis,  1911.  (Farmer's 
Practical  Library.) 

Haskin,  Frederick  J. 

American  Government.    386p.  illus.    N.  Y.,  Little,  1911. 

Henderson,  Charles  Richmond,  ed. 

Penal  and  Reformatory  Institutions.  345p.    N.  Y.  Char. 
Pub.,  Com.  1910.     (V.  4,  Correction  and  Prevention. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation.) 
Hoag,  Ernest  Bryant  and  Lewis  M.  Terman 

Health   Work  in  Schools.     321p.     Boston,   Houghton, 

1914.     (Riverside  text-books  in  education.) 
Howe,  Frederic  C. 

Modern  City  and  Some  of  Its  Problems.    390p.    N.  Y., 

Scribner,  1915. 
Lapp,  John  A.  and  Carl  Henry  Mote 

Learning  to  Earn;  a  plea  and  a  plan  for  vocational  edu- 
cation.    421p.     Bobbs,  1915. 
McCaD,  Samuel  W. 

Business  of  Congress.    215p.  N.  Y.,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity Press,  1911.    (Columbia  University  lectures.) 
McVey,  Frank  L. 

Making  of  a  Town.    221p.    Chicago,  McClurg,  1913. 
Munro,  William  Bennett,  ed. 

Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall.    365p.     N.  Y.,  Ap- 

pleton,  1912.     (Municipal  League  Series.) 
Page,  Logan  Waller 

Roads,  Paths  and  Bridges.    263p.    N.  Y.,  Sturgis,  1912. 
(Farmer's  Practical  Library,  ed.  by  Ernest  Inger- 
soll.) 
Plehn,  Carl  C. 

Government  Finance  in  the  United  States.     166p.  Chi- 
cago, McClurg,  1915.     (National  Social  Science  Se- 
ries.) 
Ray,  P.  Orman. 

Introduction  to  Political  Parties  and  Practical  Politics. 
493p.  N.  Y.,  Scribner,  1913. 


392  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Reinsch,  Paul  S. 

American  Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods.    337p. 

N.  Y.,  Century,  1907.     (American  State  Series.) 
Robinson,  Charles  Mulford 

Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities;  or  the  practical  basis 
of  civic  aesthetics.  Ed.  4,  rev.  N.  Y.,  Putnam,  1901. 

Ryan,  Oswald 

Municipal  Freedom;  a  study  of  the  commission  govern- 
ment.    233p.  N.  Y.,  Doubleday,   1915.     (American 
Series.) 
Seager,  Henry  Rogers. 

Social  Insurance ;  a  program  of  social  reform.     176p. 
N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1910.     (American  Social  Progress 
Series.) 
Smith,  Adam, 

Inquiry  Into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 

Nations.    Various  Editions. 
Spalding,  Frederick  P. 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements.     Ed.  4,  rev.  and 

enl.   408p.  N.  Y.,   Wiley,  1912. 
Sullivan,  James  W. 

Markets  for  the  People;  the  consumer's  part.  316p. 
N.  Y.,  Macmillan,  1913. 

Warner,  Amos  G. 

American  Charities.  Rev.  ed.  510p.  N.  Y.,  Crowell, 
1908.  (Library  of  Economics  and  Politics.) 

Waugh,  Frank  A. 

Rural  Improvement;  the  principles  of  civic  art  applied 
to  rural  conditions,  including  village  improvement 
and  the  betterment  of  the  open  country.  265p.  illus. 
N.  Y.,  Judd,  1914. 

Woodburn,  James  Albert 

Political  Parties  and  Problems  in  the  United  States;  a 
sketch  of  American  party  history  and  of  the  devel- 
opment and  operation  of  party- machinery,  together 
with  a  consideration  of  certain  party  problems  in 
their  relation  to  political  morality.  Ed.  2,  rev.  and 
enl.  487p.  N.  Y.,  Putnam,  1914. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Accidents: 

Factories,  31 

Highways, 

Streets,  29 

Trains,  32 

Accounts,  State  Board  of,         351 
Agriculture: 

Investigation,  103 

Secretary  of,  337,  338 

State    Board    of,  350 

Agricultural  Facts,  173 

Alaska,  300 

Ambassadors: 

Appointment,  299 

Homes,  299,  300 

And  Ministers,  295,  296 

Animal  Diseases,  127 

Appeals   to   Higher   Court, 

264,  265 
Arbitration: 

International, 

Labor  Disputes,  162 

Army:  25 

Organization,  294 

Art,  21 

Assessor: 

County, 

Township,  358 

Attorney-General : 

State, 


U.  S.. 
Auditor: 
County, 
State, 


345 
334,  335 

354 
345,  346 

33,  34 
347 
114 


Banking: 

Department, 
Bill-boards, 
Bills: 

Legislative,  228,  229 

Introduction,  229 

Birth   Records,  172 

Blue    Sky   Companies,  34,  35 

Bonds,  322,  324 

Bridges,  14 

Budget,  324 

Buildings,  Height  of,  114 
Business: 

Control  of,  156 

Tax,  318 

Business  Manager  Government, 

244,    245 

395 


Cabinet,  332,  333 

Canal   Zone,  310,  311 

Canals,  15 

Canvas    of    Votes,  187 

Capital    and    Labor,  160 

Capital   Punishment,  278 

Census: 

Apportionment    of    Repre- 
sentatives, 175 
U.  S.,                                              175 
Charities:                         21,  134,  145 
Temporary    Help,           130,  131 
Charities    and     Corrections, 

Board  of,  34S 

Children,    Care    and    Pro- 
tection, 135,  138 
Children's  Care,  Research,       103 
Cities:  19 
Growth,                                107,  108 
Form  of  Government,  244,  245 
City: 

Beautiful,  113 

Charter,  61 

Problems,  107,  122 

City    Councils: 

Apportionment,  218 

Powers,  217 

And  Commissions,  216,217,  223 
City    Planning:  108,  113 

Railroads,  111,  112 

Washington,  108,  109 

Civil   Liberty,  45 

Civil  Procedure,  263-269 

Civil   Service:  192,  201 

Commission,  341 

Eligible    List,  196,  197 

Examination,  195,  196 

Civil   Service  Reform:      194,  195 
Advantages    of,  198 

Clerk    of    the   Court,  354 

Clothing,  4 

Collective  Bargaining,  160,  161 
Commerce,  Secretary  of,  338,339 
Commercial  Problems, 


Research,  104 

Commission  Form  of 

Government,  244 

Committees: 

Congress,  234 
Legislative,                       22g,  229 

Party.  184 


396 


INDEX 


Common  Needs, 
Common  Protection, 
Comptroller — State, 
Congress: 

Apportionment  of  Rep- 
resentatives, 

Powers, 

Procedure, 

Session, 
Conservation: 

Governor's  Conference, 

Commission, 
Constable, 
Constitution: 

U.     S., 

Amendments, 

Making;, 
Constitutions: 

State, 

U.   S., 
Consuls, 

Convention    System, 
Cooperation,    Agricultural, 
Coroner, 
Corporations, 
Corrupt    Practises, 
Cost    of    Government,. 
Counties,  218,  245 

County    Board, 
Country,  Desertion, 
Country    Problems: 

Better    Agriculture, 
Courts: 

Appeal, 

Circuit, 

City, 

Costs, 

County, 

Enforcement  of  Results, 

Juvenile, 

Procedure  of  U.  S., 

Powers    of   U.    S., 

Purpose, 

U.  S. 

U.   S.    Circuit, 

U.  S.  Claims, 

U.  S.  Customs, 

U.  S.  District, 

U.  S.  Special, 

U.  S.  Supreme, 

Kinds    of, 

Criminal    Procedure, 
Criminals,   Rights, 

Death  Rate,  Decrease, 

Death   Records, 

Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, 

Deeds: 
Records, 
Registration   of, 


13,     23 

Defectives,  Record  of,             173 

24,     37 

Direct  Primary,                   180,  182 

345,  346 

Disease  Prevention,                       27 

210,   211 

District    of    Columbia,               310 

P- 

Division    of    Government 

211 

Work,                                     59,     60 

212 

Division    of   Labor,                           1 

233 

Double    Election,                         188 

211,  212 

Drainage,                                          18 

145,  155 

B, 

Education:                8,    20,    91,  106 

145,   147 

Agricultural,                               101 

349 

City   Schools,                                99 

358 

County    Supt.    of,    99,    100,  355 

Elementary                           93,  94 

364,   376 

Extension  and  Corre- 

377, 382 

spondence,                                  97 

43 

Higher,                                           95 

60,      61 

Local    Offices,                             100 

61 

Management,                       98,  100 

61 

Part-time    Schools,           96,     97 

296 

Purposes  of,                          92,  93 

180,  181 

State    Board     of,     99,  351,  352 

*al,      129 

Support    of,                                 100 

355 

The  Nation's  Part,         100,  104 

34,     35 

Universal,                                      93 

185 

Vocational,                                   95 

313 

Election: 

246,   353 

Honest,                                          186 

353 

Officials,                                       186 

123,   124 

Entomologist,                            352 

123,  133 

Equal  Rights,                                   46 

124,  125 
252,   276 

Equalization,  Board  of,             356 
Examining    Boards,                     350 

256,   257 

Executive    Act,                               41 

255,  256 

Executive    Department: 

254,  255 

239,  251 

266 

Cities,                                   243,  244 

255,   256 

Counties  and  Town- 

Its, 

ships,                               245,  246 

266,  267 

Responsibility,                 246,  247 

256 

State,                                   241,  243 

268,  269 

U.    S.,                                   239,  241 

267,  268 

262 

False    Imprisonment,                 45 

257,   258 

Federal   Reserve   Board, 

258 

340,  341 

259 

Federal   Trade   Commission,  342 

259,  260 

Feeding   Stuffs,                            126 

258 

Fertilizers,                                      126 

259 

Filth  —  Prevention,                          79 

258,  259 

Fines,                                        277,  278 

252,   253 

Fire  Loss,                                    •  173 

269,   276 

Fire: 

272 

Marshal,                                       347 

Protection,                                    30 

86 

Fish    and   Game: 

172 

Commission,                                349 

l- 

Conservation,                             152 

359,   363 

Fly  and  Mosouito  Cam- 

169 

paigns,                                           84 
Food:                                           .           2 

354 

Supply,                                           81 

INDEX 


397 


Foreign  Countries,  Pro- 
tection   Against, 
Foreign     Relations,           294,  303 
Forests,  Conservation,     148,  150 
Fraud,  Protection  Against,  32 
Frauds,  Against  Agri- 
culture,                               126,  127 
Free  Speech,  45 
Freedom    of   Assemblage,  46 

Garbage    Removal, 

Gerrymandering, 

Government: 

Basis    of, 

Nature   of,  38,     48 

•  Protecting    Against,       44,     47 

Three  Acts   of, 

Governor,  343,  344 

Governor's  Veto,  231 

Grand     Jury,  270,  271 


300, 


78, 


Hawaii, 
Health: 

Country    and    City, 

Protection, 

Research, 

State  Board  of, 
Health  Officer,  County, 
Health    Work: 

Part  of  City,  State  and 
Nation 

Results,  86, 

Highways,  See  Roads, 
Highway   Commissioner, 

348,  349, 
Hospitals: 

For   Afflicted, 
Housing,  115, 


301 

27 

28 

90 

102 

346 

355 


88 
87 


358 

85 

138 

116 


Illiterates,  51 

Immigrants — Foreign,  51 

Immigration,  300 
Impeachment, 
Imprisonment, 

Income    Tax — Federal,  316,  317 

Incorporation — Record,  170 

Indeterminate   Sentence,  282 

Inheritance    Tax,  319 

Initiative,  235 

Insect   Pests,  127 

Insurance:  34 

Accident,  142 

Old  Age,  142 

Sickness,  142 

Supt.   of,  347 

Unemployment,  142 

Interior,   Secretary  of  the, 

335,  336 

Internal  Revenue,  316 

International   Law,  298,  299 
Interstate    Commerce 

Commission,  339,  340 


Irrigation,  18 
Irrigation    and    Drainage, 

Boards   of,  349 

Jails,  279 

Judicial   Act,  42 

Jury,  260 
Justice    of    the    Peace,    255,  358 

Labor: 

Bureau,  349 
And   Capital, 

Secretary   of,  339 
Labor  Conditions, 

Regulation, 

Labor  Problems,  Research,     103 

Land,  Conservation,  151,  152 

Law   and   Custom,  221 

Law    Making,  210,  238 
Laws: 

Enforcement,  239,  251 

Enrolled,  231 

Need   for  New,  221,  222 

Source     of,  226,  227 

Legislation:  210,  238 

Faults,  234,  236 
Manipulation, 
Legislative: 

Act,  40 

Information,  227,  228 

Procedure,  230 
Legislatures: 

Apportionment,  214,  215 

Committees,  228 

Powers   of,  214 

State,  213,    214,    225,  226 

Leisure,  8 

Liberty,  7 

Libraries,  21,  97,  98 

Lieutenant-Governor,  344 

Life   Protection,  24 

Lighting,  Street,  30 

Lobbyists:  231,  232 

In    Congress,  233,  234 

Local    Government:  55 

Value   of,  69 

Lockups,  278,  279 

Luxuries,  6 

Manufacture,  Facts.  174 

Marketing    Crops,  128 

Markets:  117 

And    Transportation,  129,  130 
Marriage    Records, 

Martial    Law,  291 
Medical    Inspection    of 

Schools, 
Merit  System,  See  Civil 

Service, 

Military    Power,  287,  293 

Milk    Supply,  81 
Minerals,  Conservation,    147,  148 

Minimum    Wage,  164 


398 


INDEX 


Municipal    Art.  114,  115 

Mutual    Dependence,  9,     10 

Money,  18 
Monopoly: 

Natural,  158,  159 
Natural  Monopoly  Regu- 
lation, 159 
Ways    of,  156,  159 
Monroe    Doctrine,  297,  298 
Mortgage,  Records,  169 

Nation's    Powers,  53 

National    Guard,  291 

Naturalization,  300,  301 

Navy:  25 

Secretary  of  the,  335 
Nomination: 

By    a    Minority,  188 

Governor,  180 

Local    Officers,  187 

President,  182,  184 

Nuisances,  Removal,  80 

Occupations:  1 

Diseases,  84 

In   U.   S.,  50 

Pardon,  283 

Pardons,  Board  of,  348 

Parks,  133 

Parole,  282 

Parties— Political,  179,  180 

Party    Committees,  184 

Paths   and   Trails,  66 

Penal    Farms,  281 

Pensions:  140,  142 
Government    Employees, 

190,  191 

Mothers,  141 

Police,  140,  141 

Soldiers   and   Sailors,  140 

Teachers,  141 
People: 

Facts  about,  49 
And    Government    of 

the    U.    S.,  49,     63 

Philippines,  308 

Plant    Diseases,  152 

Platform,  Party.  184 

Playgrounds,  116,  117 

Police,  26 

Political  Parties,  179,  180 

Poll    Tax,  319 
Poor,    Superintendent    of,        355 

Porto  Rico,  309 

Post-office,  17 

Postal    Revenues.  317 

Postmaster-General,  335 

President,  331,  332 

Printing  Board,  350 
Prisoners: 

AM,  284 

Defective,  282 

Employment,  281 


Prisons:  280,  281 

Local,  State  and  Federal,  284 
Probation,  283 

Profit-sharing,  162 

Property,  7 

Proportional   Representa- 
tion, 188,  189 
Prosecuting    Attorney,  355 
Public  Library  Commission,  352 
Public  Service  Commission, 

346,  347 
Public  Utility  Regulation, 

159,  160 


Quarantine, 


82,     83 


Railroad    Regulation,       159,  160 

Railroads:  1* 

In  Cities,  111,  112 

Recall,  205,  206 

Records:  167,  176 

Local,  168 

Private   Matters,  168 

State,  168 

U.  S.,  167 

Recreation,  21 

Red    Cross,  140 

Referendum,  235,  236 

Reform    Schools,  279,  280 

Reformatories;  279,  280 

Regular   Army,  290 

Religious  Liberty,  45 

Removal    by    Governor,  206 

Removing    Officers    and 

Employees,  202,  209 

Representation,  39 

Residence    Districts,  117 

Revenue: 

Cities   and   Towns,  320 

Counties,  319,  320 

Federal  Government,    315,  318 
Sources   of   Government, 

314,  315 

State,  318,  319 

Township,  319,  320 

U.    S.    1915,  317 

Roads:  13,    64,     77 

Brick    and    Concrete,  69 

Control   and   Management,    71 
Development,  65 

Dirt.  66,   67 

For   Commerce,  64,  65 

Future    Improvement,  76 

Gravel,  67,  68 

Importance  of,  64 

Investigation  of,  102 

Kinds  of,  65,  66 

Local    Management,  72 

Macadam,  68,  69 

National  Aid,  75 

Plan  for  Control,  73,  74 

Sand  Clay,  67 

Scientific  Construction,          70 
State   Aid,  72.  73 


INDEX 


399 


Roads  and  Streets, 

Repair,  70,  71 
Rural  and  City  Population,  49 

Rural  Credits,  130,  131 

Rural  Problems:  123,  133 

Credits,  130,  131 

Safety   Devices,  32 

Sanitary  Measures, 

Schools,  Medical  Inspection,     83 

Second   Choice,  188 

Secretary: 

Of  Agriculture.  337,  338 

Of    Commerce,  338,  339 

Of    the    Interior  335,  336 

Of    Labor,  339 
Of   the   Navy, 

Of   the   Treasury,  333 

Of  War,  334 
Secretary  of  State: 

State,  344,  345 

U.    S.,  333 

Seeds,  126,  127 

Sewage   Disposal,  81,  119 

Shelter,  5 

Sheriff,  354 

Single  Tax,  325 

Sinking  Funds,  324 

Smoke,  153,  154 

Special   Assessments,  320 

Spoils   System,  193 
State: 

Aid,  248 

Library,  352 
And  Nation, 

Secretary  of,  U.  S.f  333 

States'  Powers,  55 

Steamships,  15 
Street: 

Pavements,  69,  70 

Railways,  19 

Traffic,  112,  113 

Streets,  14 

Strikes,  161 

Suffrage,  178,  179 

Superintendent    of    Public 

Instruction,  346 


Surveyor,  County, 
Suspended  Sentence, 


355 

28$ 


Tariff,                                      315,  318 

Tax    Commission,              347,  348 

Taxation,                                313,  328 

Classification  of  Property,  325 

Indirect,                             317,  318 

Old  and  New  Methods, 

313,  314 

Progressive,                       *  325 

Reform,                               324,  325 

For  Schools,  322 

Telegraph   and    Telephone,  17 

Territories,                             303,  312 

Torrens  System,  170 

Town: 

Clerk,  357 

Meeting,  357 

Townships,          218,   245,   246,  357 
Transportation : 

Cost,  16 

People's    Interest,  16 
Treasurer: 

County,  354 
State, 

Treasury,   Secretary  of   the,  3 

Treaties,  296 
Trial: 

Civil  Cases,  264 

Criminal,                             272,  273 

Fair,                              1  265 

Unconstitutional    Laws,  275 

Vaccination,  83 

Vice-President,  332 

Wants,  Variety,  6,  7 

War,    Secretary    of. 

Waste,  Disposal,  19 

Water    Supply, 

Waters,    Conservation,  15d 

Weeds,  127 

Weights    and   Measures,  38 

Workmen's   Compensation 

Commission,  349 


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